Understanding GAP as a ‘Social Development’ Project: Failure or Success? Cemal Ozkahraman Submitted to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Arab and Islamic Studies Febraury 2016 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: …………………………………………………………. i Dedication For my daughter Zerya and my son Mîran ii Abstract This thesis aims to construct a comprehensive view of the GAP project from its establishment in the 1950s through to 2015 through employing two theoretical approaches (‘modernization/development’ and ‘cosmopolitan’ theories) and wide- ranging fieldwork in south-east Turkey, conducting interviews with local people, initiators of the project, local civil organizations and political actors. Modernization/development theory is employed to examine the content and conceptualization of GAP, cosmopolitan theory to assess obstacles to the GAP ‘social development’ project. Fieldwork has been undertaken to collect primary data and make the contextualization more comprehensive. In this way the thesis seeks to determine whether the GAP project has made positive progress towards enabling the sustainable development of the south-east and resolve the problem of the unequal socio-economic development of the south-east relative to the rest of Turkey. The thesis also seeks to determine whether the project has had a negative impact on the environment, archaeological sites, historical towns, settlements and cultural heritage in the region. The main purpose of the thesis is to examine two factors in relation to the GAP ‘social development’ project: (1) understanding the core concept behind the materialization of the project, which involves ending the region’s longstanding chronic poverty, provide socio-economic stability and creating integration with the industrialized west of Turkey; (2) a comparative analysis of empirical and theoretical work provides a review of the conceptualization of the project and investigation of the extent to which it has succeeded, and an assessment is made of obstructions which have led to the project failing to achieve many of its targets. The thesis argues that four problems, three internal and one external, have impacted on the ‘social development’ aspect of the GAP project. It also points out the historical factors involved in Turkish policy for the region, and demonstrates how the success or failure of the project depends on how far the Turkish state understands the need for local cultural empowerment and operates in the interests of local people. iii Acknowledgments First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Gareth Stansfield for encouraging me and helping me to overcome difficulties with my study. His advice and feedback has enabled me to develop an understanding of the subject, and enabled me to complete this thesis. I would also like to thank Professor Ewan W. Anderson, who supervised me for two years during his work as visiting professor in the University of Exeter, and who provided guidance at the beginning of my study and crucial advice on how to undertake beneficial fieldwork. I would also like to thank my second supervisor, Associate Professor William Gallois, who advised me on how to undertake a PhD thesis. I would also like to thank Zoe Humble for her quick responses and coordination with my supervisors. I would also like to express deepest appreciation to those who made their support available in a number of ways. A very special thank you to my friends, Dr Özlem Galip and Dr Salima Taşdemir, for their support and advice during my study. I also thank my friend Mithat Ishakoglu who accompanied me during my visit to Exeter. Big thanks to my brother Mustafa and my sisters Bediha, Songul, Fatma and Hicret for helping me during my fieldwork in Turkey and creating a personal network, which enabled me to finish it in good time. Of course, my two gorgeous children, Zerya and Miran, who arrived during the last two years of my study, have given me excitement and energy to complete my thesis. And finally, many thanks to my wife, who endured this long process. iv Table of Contents Chapter One – Introduction 1.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………....1 1.2. Research questions and arguments …………………………………....4 1.3. Methodological considerations ……………………………………….6 1.4. Theoretical considerations …………………………………………….9 1.4.1. Modernization/development and cosmopolitan theories ……...9 1.5. Chapter outline ………………………………………………………15 Chapter Two - What is the Southeast Anatolia Project or Güneydogu Anadolu Projesi (GAP)? 2.1. Introduction …………………………………………………………….17 2.2. Historical background of the GAP project: physicality and construction 2.2.1. Euphrates and Tigris water: exploration of the potential………….18 2.2.2. The role of the Euphrates -Tigris in Ancient Mesopotamia ………19 2.2.3. The south-eastern provinces and the location of the GAP project...22 2.2.4. GAP organization, dams and the capacity of power generation and irrigation ....................................................................................................24 2.2.5. The location of the 22 dams on the Euphrates and Tigris rivers included in the GAP project……………………………………………...27 2.2.5a. Dams on the Euphrates……………………………………….28 2.2.5b. Dams on the Tigris ………………………………………….35 2.2.6. The current physical progress in the Irrigation and Hydroelectric Power Plant (HEPP) Project ……………………………………………..38 2.3. Origin of GAP and the formation of the social development project 2.3.1. Origins …………………………………………………………….39 2.3.2. Organization of the GAP Regional Development Administration...41 2.4. Development of the GAP social development project under the GAP Master Plan………………………………………………………………….42 2.4.1. GAP-Social Action Plan ………………………………………….43 2.4.2. GAP Entrepreneur Support and Guidance Centres (Bölgesel v Kalkinmada Girisimciligin Gelistirilmesi (GAP-GIDEM)) ……………46 2.4.3. Multi-Purpose Community Centres (Çok Amaçli Toplum Merkezleri (ÇATOM))……………………………………………………………….47 2.4.4. GAP Youth House Centres (GAP Gençlik Evleri) ………………..49 2.4.5. GAP Child Development Centres (Çocuk Gelisim Merkezleri) …..50 2.5. Concluding remarks ……………………………………………………51 Chapter Three - Narrative of the south-east: political, socio-cultural and socio- economic aspects 3.1. Introduction …………………………………………………………….53 3.2. History of development and modernization in Turkey: from the foundation of the Turkish republic to the 1980s…………………………….54 3.3. Politics and Turkish policies: paradigms within the south-east region…64 3.4. South-east region: socio-economic development, Kurdish social structure and Turkish politics………………………………………………………….68 3.5. An analytical approach to GAP through the lens of modernization/development theory………………………………………….74 3.6. Critical approach to modernization/development theory ………………78 3.7. Concluding remarks ……………………………………………………83 Chapter Four - An overview of the literature on GAP and its ‘social development’ project 4.1. Introduction …………………………………………………………….85 4.2. An analytical approach to the literature on the social development dimension of GAP …………………………………………………………..86 4.3. Politicization of the GAP ‘social development’ project ……………….93 4.4. Obstacles to the progress of the GAP ‘social development’ project …..98 4.5. Concluding remarks …………………………………………………..101 Chapter Five - The progress and political tone of the GAP ‘social development’ project 5.1. Introduction …………………………………………………………...102 5.2. Critical analysis of GAP as a social development project: unsustainable programme, strategies and plan ……………………………………………103 5.3. GAP: ‘top-down’ project, strengthening state authority and hidden politics ……………………………………………………………………..126 5.4. Concluding remarks …………………………………………………..134 vi Chapter Six - The impact of GAP on the south-east region 6.1. Introduction …………………………………………………………...136 6.2. The positive impact of the GAP project: a path to socio-economic progress ……………………………………………………………………137 6.3. The negative impact of the GAP project: inevitable destruction ……..143 6.4. What is the Aswan High Dam Project? ……………………………….153 6.4.1. GAP project versus Aswan project: a comparative analysis …….156 6.4.2. Evaluating GAP and Aswan: outcomes and impact ……………..158 6.4.3. Concluding remarks ……………………………………………..160 Chapter Seven - The obstacles and challenges to successful implementation of GAP 7.1. Introduction …………………………………………………………...162 7.2. The rise of the Kurdish national movement in the region …………….163 7.3. The rise of the Pro-Kurdish political party in the south-east: shifting balances in political power ………………………………………………...167 7.4. The lack of resolution of the Kurdish Question: failed policies and strategies……………………………………………………………………174 7.5. Cosmopolitan regime of democracy: block to Turkish GAP’s ‘social development’ strategy? ................................................................................182 7.5.1. States prior to post-Cold War world politics …………………….183 7.5.2. End of the Cold War: shifts in the world order and the rise of cosmopolitanism ………………………………………………………..186 7.5.3. Turkey-EU: implementation of cosmopolitan democracy ………190 7.5.4. Cosmopolitanism: the GAP social development project and Turkey’s approach ……………………………………………………...195