„Lodge-ical‟ Thinking and Development Communication: !Xaus Lodge as a Public-Private-Community Partnership in Tourism By Lauren Dyll-Myklebust Submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, Development and Social Sciences, Univeristy of KwaZulu-Natal in fulfilment of the requirements of a PhD in The Centre for Communication, Media and Society (CCMS) November 2011 Declaration I, Lauren Dyll-Myklebust (student number 981201194), hereby declare that this thesis is my own original work, has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other univeristy, and that the sources I have used have been acknowledged by complete references. This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in The Centre for Communication, Media and Society (CCMS) in the School of Literary Studies, Media and Creative Arts in the Faculty of Humanities, Development and Social Sciences at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Signature:______________________________ Date: 25 November 2011 ii Acknowledgements The financial assistance of the University of KwaZulu-Natal and the National Research Foundation (NRF): Social Sciences and Humanities toward this research is hereby acknowledged. I am also indebted to the Council for Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) for their financial support via the Small Grants Programme. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at are those of the author and not necessarily attributed to the NRF or CODESRIA. My thanks go to my supervisor, Prof. Keyan Tomaselli for his support and invaluable advice throughout the years. I have been privileged to be part of and contribute towards the wider CCMS Rethinking Indigeneity project headed by Keyan Tomaselli and funded via his NRF grant holder research award. I appreciate the encouragement from the CCMS staff and I am also grateful to Mike Maxwell for assiting in formatting the final document. My gratitude goes to my fellow „Kalahari travellers‟ for the stimulating conversations in the field and to those CCMS students who peer-reviewed certain chapters. Special thanks needs to be given to Kate Finlay whose shared knowledge of the research site aided this research. Sincere thanks to Mary Lange and Nelia Oets for their expertise in translating interviews. Thank you to TFPD for facilitating my research at !Xaus Lodge, and particularly to Glynn O‟Leary for his generosity of time in providing information. Most importantly I thank the Mier and the Khomani of the Northern Cape without whom none of this would be possible. Thank you for your warm hospitality in allowing me into your lives and for sharing your knowledge with me. To my whole family who has been a constant source of strength and encouragement – thank you! Special thanks to Carla Elliott for her insightful ideas and motivation and to Gareth Myklebust for his patience and graphic skills in illustrating this thesis. iii Abstract This thesis explores the interface between community development via tourism and the field of development communication vis-à-vis a case study of the community-owned and privately- operated !Xaus Lodge in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. The research is informed by Critical Indigenous Qualitative Research that employs interpretive research practices that aim to be ethical, transformative, participatory and committed to dialogue. The study valorises the voices of all lodge stakeholders analysing their expectations and how they negotiate the processes involved in the establishment and operations of the lodge. As a longitudinal study from 2006 until 2011 it focuses on the processes involved in transforming a failed poverty alleviation-built tourism asset into a commercial product with a range of benefits for the community partners. The processes involved are studied and shaped via participatory action research. This thesis generates a generalised public-private-community lodge partnership development communication model based on the findings of the !Xaus Lodge case study. The analysis of !Xaus Lodge is guided by development communication principles and practice such as the Communication for Participatory Development (CFPD) model, as well as the notion of pro-poor tourism (PPT). The applicability of these policies, approaches and models is problematised highlighting the complexity of development on the ground, particularly with indigenous and local communities. This study sets out the importance of cultural relativity in development projects whereby possible differences in the stakeholders‟ history, epistemology and ontology should be taken into consideration if a project is to negotiate both the demands of commercial viability as well as the symbolic and spiritual needs of the community partners. iv Acronyms ANC - African National Congress BEE - Black Economic Empowerment BTG - Best of Travel Group CFPD - Communication for Participatory Development CPA - Communal Property Association CRA - Cultural Resources Audit CBNRM – Community based natural resource management CBT - Community-based tourism DEAT - Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism DTEC - Department of Tourism, Environment and Conservation EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment FEDHASA - Federated Hospitality Association of Southern Africa FGASA - Field Guide Association South Africa FTTSA - Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa GEAR - Growth, Employment and Redistribution Strategy KD1 - Kgalagadi District 1 KTP - Kgalagadi Transfontier Park KNP - Kruger National Park MOA - Memorandum of Agreement NEPAD - New Partnerships for Africa‟s Development JMB - Joint Management Board PPP - Public Private Partnerships PPCP - Public-Private-Community Partnership PPT - Pro-poor tourism RDP - Rural Development Plan SANParks - South African National Parks SASI - South African San Institute SATSA - South African Tourism Services Association SMME - Small, medium and micro enterprises TFCA - Transfrontier Conservation Area TFPD - Transfontier Parks Destination TP - Transfrontier Park WIMSA - Working Group of Indigenous Minorities v List of figures Map: Showing !Xaus Lodge, surrounding area and other significant tourism and development sites referred to in the study. Table 1: Action (Marketing) Research as a hybrid perspective (Dyll-Myklebust & Finlay, forthcoming). Schematic Model 1: Communication for Participatory Development (Kincaid & Figueroa, 2007/2009) Table 2: Socio-economic empowerment outcomes conferred upon the Gordonia area by !Xaus Lodge. Table 3: Individual empowerment outcomes for ≠Khomani and Mier owners generated by !Xaus Lodge. Table 4: !Xaus Lodge Case Study: Economic Contribution from Gordonia Report (O‟Leary, 2011). Table 5: TFPD‟s Business-led Model and „Lodge-ical‟ Thinking. Schematic Model 2: PPCP in Participatory Lodge (Tourism) Development vi Contents Declaration ................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... iv Acronyms ..................................................................................................................................... v List of figures .............................................................................................................................. vi Map ............................................................................................................................................. xi Chapter One ................................................................................................................................. 1 A Background to the „Heart‟ of the Kalahari............................................................................... 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1 What‟s in a name? .................................................................................................................... 1 Mier Community ...................................................................................................................... 5 ≠Khomani Community .......................................................................................................... 10 The Land Claim: Back to the Future ...................................................................................... 14 Land, Lies and Liability ......................................................................................................... 19 The Development Initiative: The Co-operation Lodge .......................................................... 26 Rationale for the Topic and Issues to be Investigated: Rethinking Indigeneity .................... 28 Structure of the Study ............................................................................................................ 32 Chapter Two............................................................................................................................... 34 Methodology: Critical Indigenous Qualitative Research and Action (Marketing) Research .... 34 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 34 Self and Other: The Role of a Non-Indigenous Researcher .................................................. 35 Interpretive