Carolyn Merchant THE OF AT WOMEN, ECOLOGY, AND THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION tfj 1817 Harper & Row, Publi$hers, San Francisco New York, Grand Rapids, Philadelphia, St. Louis London, Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo, Toronto Acknowledgment is made fur the permission of the Journal of the History of Phi­ losophy to include a revised version of the author's article "The Vitalism of Anne Conway" (July 1979) in Chapter 11; of Ambix to include parts of the author's article "The Vitalism of Francis Mercury Van Helmont" (November 1979) in Chapters 4 and 11; of Indiana University Press. to reprint from Metamorphoses by Publius Ovid, translated by Rolfe Humphries (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1955); and of Cornell University Press to reprint tables on p. 312 from William E. Monter, Witchcraft in France and Switzerland. Copyright © 1976 by Cornell University. THE DEATH OF NATURE: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution. Copyright © 1980 by Carolyn Merchant. PREFACE: 1990 copyright© 1989 by Carolyn Mer­ chant. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written per­ mission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information address Haroer & Row, Publishers, Inc., 10 East 53rd Street, New York, NY 10022. FIRST HARPER & ROW PAPERBACK EDITION PUBLISHED IN 1983. Designed by Paul Quin Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Merchant, Carolyn. The death of nature. Originally published in 1980; with new preface. Includes bibliographical references. l . Women in science. 2. Philosophy of nature. 3. Human ecology. I. Title. Ql30.M47 1989 304.2 89-24516 ISBN 0-06-250595-5 89 90 91 92 93 MCN 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 For David and John, Elizabeth and Ann Contents List of Illustrations viii Time Line x Acknowledgments xiii Preface: 1990 xv Introduction: Women and Ecology xix 1. Nature as Female 1 2. Farm, Fen, and Forest: European Ecology in Transition 42 3. Organic Society and Utopia 69 4. The World an Organism 99 5. Nature as Disorder: Women and Witches 127 6. Production, Reproduction, and the Female 149 7. Dominion over Nature 164 8. The Mechanical Order 192 9. Mechanism as Power 216 ... - 10. The Management of Nature 236 11. Women on Nature: Anne Conway and Other Philosophical Feminists 253 12. Leibniz and Newton 275 Epilogue 290 Notes 296 Index 339 vii List of Illustrations Figure 1. The Nymph of the Spring, by Lu­ Figure 8. The Classes of Men, woodcut by cas Cranach (151.8, Germany). Reproduced Hans Weiditz (ca. 1530). Reproduced by in E. Ruhmer, ed., Cranach (London: Phai­ permission of the Prints Division, New don Press, 1963), Plate 33. (Baron Thyssen­ York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Til­ Bornemisza, Lugano--Castagnola.) 9 den Foundations. 74 Figure 2. The female soul of the world, en­ Figure 9. The Hierarchical Cosmos, reprint­ graved by Johann Theodore de Bry, in Rob­ ed from Andreas Cellarius, Harmonia Ma­ ert Fludd, Utriusque Cosmi Maioris Scili­ crocosmica (Amsterdam, 1661 ). Courtesy cet et Minoris Metaphysica (Oppenheim, Mrs. Roy V. Sowers, Santa Cruz, Califor­ 1617-21), vol. 1, p. 3. Courtesy The Ban­ nia. 101 croft Library, University of California at Figure 10. The hermetic philosopher follow­ Berkeley. 12 ing in the footsteps of nature, engraved by Figure 3. Isis, in Athanasius Kircher, Oedi­ Johann Theodore de Bry. Reprinted from pus Aegypticus, 4 vols. (Rome: Mascardi, Atalanta Fugiens, Hoc Est, Emblemata 1652), vol. 1, p. 189. Courtesy The Ban­ Nova de Secretis Chymica (Oppenheim, croft Library, University of California at 1618), Emblema 42, "De Secretis Natura." Berkeley. 15 Courtesy Tulane University Library. Re­ Figure 4. Hermaphrodite, from Aurora con­ produced from facsimile edition (Kassel surgens (late fourteenth century). Zentral­ and Basel: Barenreiter-Verlag, 1964). 110 bibliotek, Zurich, Cod. rhenovacensis 172, Figure 11. Aristotle and Phyllis, woodcut endpapers. Reproduced from Stanislas by Hans Baldung Grien (signed and dated Klossowski de Rola, Alchemy (New York: 1513, Germany). Berlin, Staatliche Mu­ Avon, 1973), Plate 4. 21 seen. Reproduced from Hannelore Sachs, Figure 5. The union of the solar and lunar The Renaissance Woman (New York: opposites in the alchemical work, from Ar­ McGraw-Hill, 1971), Plate 46. 135 nold of Villanova, Rosarium Philoso­ Figure 12. Two women beating up a monk phorum (sixteenth century). Kantonsbib­ who has probably molested them, pen draw­ liothek Vadiana, St. Gallen, ms. 394a, f. 34. ing by Urs Graf (ca. 1521). Kunstmuseum Reproduced from Stanislas Klossowski de Basel, Kupferstichkabinett. Reproduced from Rola, Alchemy (New York: Avon, 1973), Hannelore Sachs, The Renaissance Woman Plate 41. 22 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971), Plate Figure 6. Miners diverting rivers and cut­ 102b. 136 ting down trees for the washing and refin­ Figure 13. The Witches, woodcut by Hans ing of ores, in Georg Agricola, De Re Me­ Baldung Grien (signed and dated 1510, tallica (1556), trans. Herbert C. Hoover Germany). Berlin, Staatliche Museen. Re­ and Lou H. Hoover (New York: Dover, produced from Hannelore Sachs, The Re­ 1950), p. 337. 35 naissance Woman (New York: McGraw­ Figure 7. Veins of ore in hillsides, in Georg Hill, 1971 ), Plate 103. 137 Agricola, De Re Metallica (1556), trans. Figure 14. The Four Witches, engraving by Herbert C. Hoover and Lou H. Hoover Albrecht Diirer (signed and dated 1497, (New York: Dover, 1950), p. 62. 37 Germany). Berlin, Staatliche Museen. Re- viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS produced from Hannelore Sachs, The Re­ Press, 1976; first published 1588), Plate naissance Woman (New York: McGraw­ 9. 221 Hill, 1971), Plate 12. 139 Figure 21. Human-powered treadmill crane Figure 15. Title page from Hic-Mu/ier or from Tower of Babel, by Pieter Bruegel the the Man-Woman (London, 1620). Repro­ Elder. Reproduced from ·Bruegel: Details duced by permission of The Huntington Li­ from His Pictures, trans. Eveline B. Shaw brary, San Marino, California. 167 (London: Williams and Norgate, 1936), Figure 16. Five Women. From the Art Col­ Plate 16. Reproduced with permission of lection of the Folger Shakespeare Library, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. 222 Washington, D.C., Art vol. d56 (Nunsuch Figure 22. Portrait of Jan Fernaguut, by Palace). 175 Pieter Pourbus the Elder; Musee Commu­ Figure 17. Nature Reveals Herself, sculp­ nal, Bruges. From Sir Paul Lambott, Flem­ ture by Louis-Ernest Barrias (1841-1905, ish Painting Before the Eighteenth Cen­ France). Photograph by Roger-Viollet, 6 tury, trans. Herbert B. Grimsditch Rue de Seine, Paris, and used by permis­ (London: Studio, 1927), Plate 67. 224 sion. 191 Figure 23. Fifteenth-century geared clock. Figure 18. Frontispiece to Thomas Hobbes, Musees Royaux d' Art et Histoire, Brussels. Leviathan (London: Crooke, 1651). Courte­ From Henri Michel, Scientific Instruments sy The Bancroft Library, University of in Art and History, trans. R.E.W. Mad­ California at Berkeley. 211 dison and Francis R. Maddison (New York: Figure 19. A windmill used for grinding, Viking Press, 1967), Plate 77. Originally drawing by Agostino Ramelli, in his Var­ published in Instruments des Sciences dans ious and Ingenious Machines, trans. Mar­ /'art et /'histoire, © 1966 Albert de tha Teach Gnudi © 1976, text, translations, Visscher, Editeur, and used by permis­ glossary, notes copyright Martha Teach sion. 225 Gnudi and Eugene.S. Ferguson (Baltimore, Figure 24. Pascal's adding machine. IBM Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976; Corporation, Paris. From Henri Michel, first published 1588), Plate 132. 219 Scientific Instruments in Art and History, Figure 20. Watermill alid pump for raising trans. R.E.W. Maddison and Francis R. water, drawing by Agostino Ramelli, in his Maddison (New York: Viking Press, 1967), Various and Ingenious Machines, trans. Plate 16. Originally published in Instru­ Martha Teach Gnudi © 1976, text, transla­ ments des Sciences dans /'art et l'histoire, tions, glossary, notes copyright Martha © 1966 Albert de Visscher, Editeur, and Teach Gnudi and Eugene S. Ferguson (Bal­ used by permission. 233 timore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University ix 1558 Johann Battista Della Porta's Natural Time Line Magic Events in the· Period of the 1564 Death of John Calvin Scientific Revolution 1565 Bernardino Telesio's De Rerum Natura Iuxta Propria Principia 1484 Death of Pico della Mirandola 1572 Tycho Brahe's "new;star" (super nova) 1486 Malleus Maleficarum published challenges the incorruptibility of the heavens 1489 Marsillio Ficino accused of practicing 1576 Jean Bodin's Six Books of the Republic magic 1578 Queen Elizabeth requests Londoners i 1510 Henry Cornelius Agrippa's De Occulta not to use sea-coal in their industries Philosophia 1584 Reginald Scot's Discoverie of Witch­ 1513 Niccolo Machiavelli completes The craft Prince 1587 Death of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots 1515 First printed edition of Ptolemy's A/­ 1589 Accession of Henry IV to throne of mag.est France 1517 Martin Luther's 95 Theses against the 1590 Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queen abuse of indulgences ca. 1590 Henri Boguet's An Examen of 1518 Lucas Cranach paints "The Nymph of Witches t!:!e Spring" 1594 Richard Hooker's On The Laws of Ec­ 1525 German Peasants War begins in Swabia clesiastical Polity 1528 Death of Albrecht Diirer 1599 Tommaso Campanella's revolution in 1531 Thomas Elyot's The Boke Named the Naples Governour § 1600 Giordano Bruno burned in Rome 1535 Henry VIII dissolves Catholic monas­ 1600 William Gilbert's On the Magnet de­ teries