USE OF PROPAGANDA IN CIVIL WAR: THE BIAFRA EXPERIENCE. PATRICK EDIOMI DAVIES A Thesis in the Department of International Relations The London School of Economics and Political Science Submitted to the University of London for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) June 1995 1 UMI Number: U105277 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U105277 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 IH eS£ F 71 L\~L\-lo DC hOOrUftH- USE OF PROPAGANDA IN CIVIL WAR: THE BIAFRA EXPERIENCE. ABSTRACT This study examines the effect of propaganda in the Biaffan war. Nigeria, the show case of British colonial rule and Empire, and transfer to independence, was at the point of disintegration in 1967. A section of the country, the Eastern region had dared to do the unthinkable at that time, to secede. The British and Nigerian governments were determined that it would not happen. The break away region, which called itself Biafra was blockaded by land, air and sea, and starved of weapons and the means of livelihood. The only means available to it was propaganda. In the opinion of many commentators, Biafra employed propaganda admirably and effectively, sustaining the war for three years, against all odds. An investigation into the background of Biafra's successful propaganda thrust became a very compelling urge for me. But to arrive at that point, an examination is made of propaganda cultures that bear a family resemblance to that of Biafra. Because of the complete dearth of materials by media practioners, or the protagonists, or actors on the Biafran media/propaganda scene, it has been necessary to travel to and from Nigeria several times to interview the key participants. The issuance of questionnaires was unsuccessful as no one had or found time to fill them in. Data and Statistics were non existent in any cohesive form. There is still even now a reticence by the principal actors to discuss the issues involving the war. To discuss a familial pattern, or any other form of family migration which might support the argument of the success of Biafra's propaganda, three models have been examined, ie; Hitler's/Goebbels' German propaganda, (as a watershed in modem war propaganda, Mao Tse Tung's Chinese propaganda, and Ojukwu's Biafran propaganda. However, other examples like the English, American, Russian, and French civil wars and revolutions, etc; are employed in the arguments and discussions. The thesis examines psychological warfare, the origins of propaganda, modem methods and concepts, the Biafran domestic and external factors; and suggests that the exploitative propaganda tools in most civil conflicts are religion, and/or tribal/ethnic/nationalistic tendencies. The difference is that in Biafra there was a first - hunger and starvation became a massively useful propaganda weapon. 2 ABBREVIATIONS. A.G. Action Group. BBC. British Broadcasting Corporation. C.I.A. Central Intelligence Agency. C.B.I. Confederation of British Industries. C.O.R Calabar, Ogoja and Rivers State Movement. Dr. Doctor. E.N.B.C./T.V Eastern Nigeria Broadcasting Corporation and Television. Fr. Father. IBS. International Broadcasting Society. MPs. Members of Parliament. Mr. Mister. N.B.C.T.V. Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation and Television. N.C.N.C. National Council of Nigeria and Cameroun N.N.A. Nigerian National Alliance. N.P.C. Northern People’s Congress. O.A.U. Organisation of African Unity. PR. Public Relations. P.& T. Posts and Telegraphs. R.K.T Radio Television Kaduna. RTE. Irish Television. T.S. The Sunday Magazine. U.N. United Nations. U.P.G.A United Progressive Grand Alliance. W.N.B.S./T.V Western Nigeria Broadcasting Service and Television U.A.R. United Arab Republics. U.S.A. United States of America. 3 CONTENTS Page. Abstract Abbreviations. Figures/Photographs appendix Maps appenndix Tables appendix Acknowledgements 5. CHAPTERS. 1.INTRODUCTION 6 2. THE OLD REGIME 32 3. MODERN METHODS AND CONCEPTS 79 4. BIAFRA: THE DOMESTIC FACTOR 119 5. BIAFRA: THE EXTERNAL FACTOR 177 6. CONCLUSION 250 Bibliography 269 Appendix 287 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. I thank God most sincerely for my being, for preserving me through the turmoils of Biafra - the bombs, the air raids, the shells, the bullets, and all the other enormous and countless difficulties. Gratefully, His Omnipresence has guided and guarded me, and made it possible for this thesis to be written. I am profoundly grateful to my parents for giving me life, nurturing me, giving me a sound Christian upbringing, a good education, and until their deaths, always being there. My whole hearted appreciation goes out to Professor Michael Leifer, who encouraged me, and made it possible for me to come to the London School of Economics and Political Science for this study. It is impossible to sufficiently thank Professor James Mayall for his gentlemanliness in 'breaking me in', his understanding nature and patience. He has acted as counsellor, confidant, teacher, guide, and supervisor through the upheavals of the study and research. I am indebted to Mr Auberon Waugh for giving me some of his books, and lending me other books and materials. I thank the London School of Economics and Political Science for offering me the opportunity to do this study I acknowledge with gratitude the help and assistance given by the numerous archives and libraries, High Commisions and Embassies, Organisations and individuals who have helped to make this study possible. Some of them have had to put up with incessant enquiries and demands. Lastly, and most importantly, to my indefatigable wife, Dr Chinekwu Davies, I extend my unlimited and absolute gratitude. She has held the reins during my numeruos departures from home. She has exhorted me to action when the rot has tended to set in. She, herself still bears shrapnel scars from Nigerian air raids on Biafra. I am most grateful to my children Etebom, Unyime, and Akama for their patience and support. Akama especially deserves optimum praise, for he was only one year old when I started this research, and has had to cope with my several absences from home. I dedicate this thesis to my parents, brothers and sisters, my wife and children, for their love, care, attention and support over the years. Patrick Ediomi Davies. London School of Economics and Political Science. University of London. June 1995. 5 CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Hypothesis, and, Focus of the Study. It may be helpful to start this thesis by posing certain questions - 1. What is propaganda in civil war? 2. Who makes propaganda? 3. Who receives propaganda? 4. Why propaganda? 5. What is the effect ( result) of propaganda? 6. What role did all these questions, or the answers to them play in the Biafra Case - The Role of propaganda in Biafra? However, it is necessary at this stage to state that the purpose of this thesis is not the discussion and analysis of propaganda 'per se', even though to understand the subject and object of the discussion, a study of propaganda is inevitable. The thrust of the discussion is to relate propaganda experiences to civil war as generally as can be done, and most particularly to the Biafra experience. An immediate examination of this objective indicates the dearth of material on the subject of propaganda in civil war, most especially on Biafra. Some work emerged 6 after the first and second world wars, generally in the context of studies covering the wars. The cold war period also saw a few works, eg. Propaganda and Psychological Warfare by Terence Qualters, etc. In the years between the Gulf war of 1991 and 1995, many more books have come out dealing with propaganda in war, foreign policy, and advertising. Some of these include Propaganda edited by Robert Jackal, Propaganda and Empire by John M. Mackenzie, The Third Reich by David Welch, Propaganda and Persuasion by Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O’Donnell. Weekend in Munich by Robert S. Wistrich, Goebbels by Ralf Georg Reuth, Age of Propaganda by Anthony Pratkanis and Elliot Aronson, Ireland: The Propaganda War by Liz Curtis, Another relevant work in the context of this thesis was Revolution in Statecraft by Andrew Scott. These and a lot of other materials were examined in arriving at the theme and hypothesis of this thesis. The analysis from these and other texts are discussed later in this chapter under the 'Review of relevant literature'. Nevertheless, there is a difference between propaganda in foreign policy and advertising, ( which can be conducted either in peace time or in war time), and propaganda in war. Andrew Scott for instance believes that propaganda in foreign policy is a polite way of engaging in political discourse- of achieving aims without resorting to war and its attendant ramifications. He maintains that Athens engaged in such cultural diplomacy extensively during the 5th century A.D.- a process described as an 'unhidden agenda'. * Some ex-Biafra technocrats and military have written accounts of their experiences in the war, but unfortunately none of the media people have written anything on either their roles or that of of the media. Against this background, this thesis is written on the assumption that propaganda is an important part of strategic planning in warfare, which therefore merits an academic study in its own right.