The author(s) shown below used Federal funding provided by the U.S. Department of Justice to prepare the following resource: Document Title: Research on the Impact of Technology on Policing Strategy in the 21st Century, Final Report Author(s): Kevin Strom Document Number: 251140 Date Received: September 2017 Award Number: 2012-MU-CX-0043 This resource has not been published by the U.S. Department of Justice. This resource is being made publically available through the Office of Justice Programs’ National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. May 2016 Research on the Impact of Technology on Policing Strategy in the 21st Century Final Report Prepared for Brett Chapman National Institute of Justice 810 7th Street, NW Washington, DC 20531 Phone: 202-514-2187 Fax: 202-616-0275 [email protected] Prepared by RTI International Police Executive Research Forum RTI International 3040 Cornwallis Road Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 Final Report NIJ Grant Number 2012-MU-CX-0043 RTI Project Number 0213507.000.003 This resource was prepared by the author(s) using Federal funds provided by the U.S. Department of Justice. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. This resource was prepared by the author(s) using Federal funds provided by the U.S. Department of Justice. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. Contents Section Page 1. Abstract 1-1 2. Executive Summary 2-1 Methodology ................................................................................................. 2-1 Key Findings ................................................................................................. 2-2 Conclusions and Recommendations .................................................................. 2-3 3. Introduction 3-1 Project Goals and Objectives ........................................................................... 3-2 Research Questions ....................................................................................... 3-2 Methodology ................................................................................................. 3-3 4. Review of Relevant Literature 4-1 Technology Acquisition ................................................................................... 4-1 Impact of Technology..................................................................................... 4-4 Prevalence, Determinants, Process, and Impact: A Review of Six Technologies ....... 4-5 Crime Mapping ...................................................................................... 4-5 Social Media .......................................................................................... 4-7 Data Mining ........................................................................................... 4-9 Car Cameras ........................................................................................4-10 License Plate Readers ............................................................................4-11 Body-Worn Cameras ..............................................................................4-13 Summary of Relevant Research ......................................................................4-14 5. Research Design 5-1 Expert Panel ................................................................................................. 5-1 National Survey of Law Enforcement Agencies ................................................... 5-2 Survey Instrument ................................................................................. 5-2 Sampling Approach ................................................................................ 5-6 Data Collection Methodology .................................................................... 5-6 Sample Bias, Calibration, and Subsample Analysis ...................................... 5-8 Missing Data and Imputation ................................................................... 5-8 Qualitative Data Collection .............................................................................. 5-9 iii This resource was prepared by the author(s) using Federal funds provided by the U.S. Department of Justice. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. Site Visit Candidate Selection ..................................................................5-10 Semistructured Interviews......................................................................5-11 Analytical Plan .............................................................................................5-12 6. Results 6-1 Agency Characteristics, Strategies, and Activities ............................................... 6-1 Policing Strategies and Activities...................................................................... 6-1 Prevalence of Technology ............................................................................... 6-5 Within-Agency Variation in Prevalence....................................................... 6-9 Future Technology Acquisition.................................................................6-10 Technology Prevalence and Policing Strategies..................................................6-13 The Process of Technology Identification, Acquisition, and Implementation ...........6-19 Impact of Technology....................................................................................6-24 Perceived Importance of Technology for Success of Prioritized Activities........6-24 Influences on the Success or Failure of Technology ...........................................6-31 Degree and Timing of Planning................................................................6-32 Unexpected and Long-Term Costs............................................................6-32 Capacity of Personnel ............................................................................6-33 Attitudes and Investment of Leadership....................................................6-34 Communication and Buy-In ....................................................................6-34 Local Government and Community Climate ...............................................6-35 7. Conclusions and Recommendations 7-1 Technology Adoption and Impact in Agencies .................................................... 7-8 The Trouble with Impact Metrics .....................................................................7-10 Limitations and Avenues of Future Research.....................................................7-12 Recommendations ........................................................................................7-13 References R-1 Appendixes A Law Enforcement Technology Survey ........................................................ A-1 B Interview Guides.................................................................................... B-1 iv This resource was prepared by the author(s) using Federal funds provided by the U.S. Department of Justice. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. Exhibits Number Page 1. Expert Panel Members ................................................................................. 5-2 2. Core Technologies and Associated Policing Activities......................................... 5-3 3. Additional Technology.................................................................................. 5-5 4. Descriptive Statistics for Sample, Sampling Frame, and Weighted Sample........... 5-7 5. Law Enforcement Agencies that Participated in Study Site Visits........................5-10 6. Weighted Descriptive Statistics by Agency Size................................................ 6-2 7. Weighted Descriptive Statistics by Agency Size: Strategies and Activities ............ 6-4 8. Weighted Prioritized Activities ....................................................................... 6-6 9. Weighted Percentages of Agencies that Used Core and Other Technology in the Past 2 Years, by Agency Size (N = 749) .................................................... 6-7 10. Comparison of Technology Use by Agency Size................................................ 6-9 11. Technology Acquisition Plans in the Next 2 years (Unweighted).........................6-16 12. Logistic Regression Predicting Technology Use in the Last 2 years, Full Sample (Weighted) (N = 749)† ...............................................................................6-17 13. Logistic Regression Predicting Technology Use in the Last 2 years (Large Agencies) (n = 302) ...................................................................................6-19 14. Ordinary Least Squares Regression Predicting Overall Use of Technology in the Past 2 Years (Weighted) (N = 749)†........................................................6-21 15. Weighted Percentages for Latest Acquisition of Core Technologies .....................6-25 16. Top Five Activities by Technology and Perceived Importance*: Entire Sample (N = 749) .................................................................................................6-27 17. Top