2l Other Generations Interpretation and Use of the Past: the Case of the Picture Stones on Gotland Mats Burström Throughout history, ancient monuments and artefacts have been ascri- bed many meanings in a multitude of contexts. What consequences does this have for archaeological interpretation and for archaeology as a discipline? The discussion focuses on one single category of ancient monuments: the Gotlandic picture stones, originally raised during the period A.D. 400-1100. Mats Burströtn, Department of Archaeology, Stockholtn Universih:, S-106 91 Stockholm, Swede». The meaning of ancient monuments and der of a hated tyrant, and for yet another it artefacts is not restricted to the time when was foremost a landmark by which to orien- they came into being. On the contrary, they tate oneself in the landscape. The meaning have repeatedly attracted attention and been of a monument exceeded the originators' in- ascribed meaning throughout history. This tention already from the beginning. This pro- applies in particular to those monuments cess has continued ever since in what Richard that are well visible in the landscape. For Bradley has called "the afterlife of monu- centuries, and in many cases for thousands ments" (Bradley 1993). of years, these have been interpreted and If we want a more profound understan- made meaningful elements in the landscape. ding of the meanings of ancient monuments The generations that have followed after we cannot restrict our study to the supposed the monuments came into being have intention behind their making. Instead, we interpreted and used the monuments in their have to adopt a long-term perspective and own way. As time passed the monuments consider the multiplicity of meanings that the were ascribed a multitude of meanings. An monuments have been ascribed (Burström obvious example of how a monument is 1993).It is first when we consider also other ascribed meaning throughout history is, of generations interpretation and use of the course, Stonehenge. As Christopher Chippin- monuments that we fully realize the extent dale has shown, this monument has been of their meaning. interpreted and used in every imaginable way and then some during its history (Chippin- PICTURE STONES AND RESEARCH dale 1983). TRADITIONS Not even at the time when the monu- In the following, interest will focus on ments were built, however, did they have one, meanings that have been ascribed to a single singular meaning. Different persons had dif- category of ancient monuments: the Gotlan- ferent opinions about their meaning. The dic picture stones. As a background to the monument that for someone was a memorial discussion it may be helpful to give a short over a beloved one, was for another a remin- presentation of these stones and research Current Swedish Archaeology, Vol. 4, l996 22 Mats Burström Fig. l. The jour, chronologically separated, main groups of Gotlandic picture stones. After Andrén 1993:35. traditions. 1942), fig. l. Today we know of about 440 Gotlandic The first group of stones is dated to c.400- picture stones. Of these, only four have been 600. It consists of tall stone slabs which were discovered outside Gotland. Two stones have rai sed as gravestones. The pictures are mainly been found in Öland, one in Uppland, and abstract, such as circles and spirals. On the one in Latvia (cf. Key Map, p. 223). The lower part of the stone there is often a ship. picture stones were made during a period of The second group of stones is dated to c. approximately seven hundred years, from c. 600-800. It consists of small stones ("dwarf A.D. 400 till 1100. stones") which were probably raised as The Gotlandic picture stones can be divi- gravestones. The pictures are mainly stylized ded into four, chronologically separated, ships, birds and animals with antlers. main groups (cf. Andrén 1993:35-36;Nylén The third group of stones is dated to c. & Lamm 1988:171-172; Lindqvist 1941- 800-1000. Two different types of stones Current Swedish Archaeology, Vol. 4, 199tt Other Generations'Interpretation and Use of the Past 23 Fig. 2. A Gotlandic pictute stone of the oldest type wasfoundin the stone kerb of a late Viking Age grave at the lht e-cemetery. After Stenbet ger l 962:8. occur: most are large slabs with a keyhole rect connection with graves. This group of shape, but there are also a few smaller stones stones contains very few pictures. Instead which probably formed the walls of small they are covered with ornamental bands coffins. Both types of stones were raised as containing long runic inscriptions, often with memorials, without any direct connection Christian prayers. with graves. The stones are covered with a The academic research traditions con- large number of realistic figures. Most com- cerning picture stones are in themselves, of mon are sailing-ships, armed horsemen, and course, examples of other generations inter- women with drinking horns. Many of the pretation and use of the past. Ever since the figures form scenes. Some of the stones also first paper on Gotlandic picture stones was contain short runic inscriptions. published in 1845 (Säve 1845), the stones The last group of stones is dated to c. have attracted considerable interest. 1000-1100.The stones occur in the same two Not surprisingly, most attention has been shapes as the stones in the third group. Also given to the pictures on the stones. Many these stones were memorials without any di- stones are, however, blind, that is, the pic- Current Swedi sh Archaeotog&, Vol. 4, 1996 24 Mats Burström Viking ships (Nylén & Lamm 1988:162-169; Lindow 1993;cf. Varenius 1992:52-54). In the mythological tradition of inter- pretation the picture stones have been looked upon as illustrations of mythological stories and epic poems which are known from the Old Norse sagas. The stones have even been compared to cartoon strips (e.g. Nylén & Lamm 1988:16). A lot of work has been invested in trying to relate the pictures to specific characters and stories in the sagas. One figure that is supposed to have been identified with certainty is, for example, Odin's eight-legged steed, Sleipnir (cf. fig. 14, right). The research traditions concerning pic- ture stones closely follow the history of archaeological ideas in general. Therefore, I will not enter more deeply into a discussion of previous research. I think it is sufficient to assert that every generation of archaeo- logists has obviously put the questions of its Fig. 3. In a tenth-century grave at the Ihre- own time to the ancient picture stones, and cemetery a picture stone had been placed upri ght consequently the picture stones have been in the head end. Photo: ATA. incorporated into different archaeological contexts. Some picture stones were ancient already during the Viking Age. Some of them were tures have disappeared due to erosion caused also incorporated into new, Viking Age con- by weather. The research has therefore been texts and ascribed new meanings. focused on a smaller number of stones, the stones with well-preserved pictures. VIKING AGE RE-USE The research has in particular been direc- A considerable number of picture stones ted towards the Viking Age stones with plenty have been discovered when excavating later of figures (group III above). These stones prehistoric graves (cf. Nylén & Lamm 1988: have on the one hand been interpreted as 13; Måhl 1990).This applies in particular to realistic pictures of everyday life, and on the Viking Age graves. A vitally important ques- other as illustrations of mythological stories tion is whether the picture stones were used and epic poems. merely as building material in the graves, or In the realistic tradition of interpretation were placed there because of some special the picture stones have been used as a basis meaning ascribed by the grave builders. for reconstructions of, for example, clothing, Probably both alternatives can be correct. weapons, implements and ships. Within ship In a late Viking Age grave at the Ihre- archaeology the sailing-ship figures on the cemetery in Hellvi parish a picture stone of picture stones have become central. The rea- the oldest type was found in the stone kerb, son for this is that they show sails and rigg- fig. 2. The picture stone is about five hund- ings which are not preserved in the finds of red years older than the grave. The rest of the Current Sivedish Archaeology, Vol. 4, l996 Other Generations'interpretation and Use of the Past 25 stone kerb consists of carved slabs of lime- stone (Stenberger 1962:8-11, 131). In this case it is possible that the ancient picture stone was used by the Viking Age grave builders because of its suitable size and form. In other cases, however, the placing of the picture stones in the graves clearly indicates that they have been ascribed special meaning. This is, for example, the case with some other Viking Age graves from the Ihre-cemetery. In a male grave from the tenth century a picture stone had been placed upright in the head end, fig. 3. The stone has no visible figures (Stenberger 1962:127). In another grave, a male grave from the eleventh cen- tury, picture stones had been placed upright in both the head end and the foot end. Both stones have well-preserved pictures, fig. 4, which were facing towards the interior of the grave. The motif on the picture stone (Lamm 143) from the head end has been suggested to depict the resurrection of Christ (Lindqvist 1945:117-118).The two men on Fig. 4. Picture stones found standing uprightin the sides are presumed to hold the halves of the head end and the foot end of an eleventh- the coffin from which Christ has just been set cenntry grave at the Ihre-cemetery.