G©¥ERM MEMT-PRE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SYRIA, JORDAN AND KUWAIT Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Leicester by Sulaim an Gaza Al-Shamari M,A. (USA) Centre for Mass Communications Research University of Leicester May 1989 UMI Number: U016989 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Disscrrlation Publishing UMI U016989 Published by ProQuest LLC 2015. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 3s 3S" IT® isMÈ ëipminr ©if ms* ACEMOWLEDGEMEMTS I would like to express my sincere thanks for the encouragement and guidance of Peter Golding, without whom this study would have become completely deceased in its first stage. Special thanks are also due to all the staff of the Centre for Mass Communication at Leicester University. \ 1 would also like to thank King Sand Universitywho sponsored me and provided me with a full scholarship. The same gratitude goes to the Deputy Ministers of Information in Syria and Jordan and the editors-in-chief of Al-Sivassah and Al-Watan newspapers in Kuwait for giving me permission to analyse their newspapers and for distributing my survey among their journalists. My thanks must also go to H. Zitouni. D. Layachi, and S. Tayi for their valuable comments and their help as second coders, to Ahmed Andrews for editing this thesis, and to Elizabeth Phillips for typing the work. Finally, my deepest thanks to my wife Mudi who stood by me while 1 was in the United Kingdom. CONTENTS PAGE NO. ACKB^OWLÊOSEMEMIS CONTENTS VI ER ONE - CONTEMPORARY SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND 8 POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF SYRIA, KUWAIT AND JORDAN THE GEOGRAPHICAL UNITY 8 THE COMMON LANGUAGE 8 THE COMMON HISTORY 11 THE UNITY OF REUGION 12 THE COMMON INTERESTS, AIMS AND DESTINY 12 THE HISTORICAL ELEMENT OF SYRIA 15 THE ECONOMIC DIMENSION OF SYRIA 16 THE POUTiCAL DIMENSION OF SYRIA 18 THE GEOPOLITICAL AND HISTORICAL ELEMENTS 20 OF KUWAIT THE ECONOMIC DIMENSION OF KUWAIT 23 THE SOCIO-POUTICAL STRUCTURE OF KUWAIT 27 THE HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL DIMENSION 32 OFJORDAN THE ECONOMIC DIMENSION OF JORDAN , 37 THE POUTICAL STRUCTURE OF JORDAN 40 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 42 11 - PREVIOUS RESEARCH AND RESEARCH 45 METHODOLOGY PREVIOUS RESEARCH 45 HYPOTHESES 50 SELECTION OF THE COUNTRIES 60 METHODOLOGY 60 SELECTION OFTHE PAPERS 67 THESAMPUNG 69 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 74 CHAPTER TRREE SECTION ONE - THE SIGNIFICANCE OF 76 FREEDOM OFTHE MEDIA THE CLASSICAL LIBERAL MODEL 80 THE SOCIAUST MODEL 81 RESTRAINTS ON PRESS FREEDOM . 84 PRESS LAWS 85 ECONOMIC AND POUTICAL PRESSURES 87 SECTION TWO ■ FREEDOM OF THE PRESS 90 IN THE ARAB WORLD, AN EXAMPLE OF THE AUTHORITARIAN MODEL METHODS TO RESTRICT FREEDOM IN THE ARAB WORLD 93 CONCLUSION 103 ER FOUR - HISTORY OF THE PRESS 105 A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE PRESS IN SYRIA 110 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PRESS IN JORDAN 119 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE 128 KUWAITI PRESS CONCLUSION 137 III - PUBLICATION AND PRESS LAWS 141 FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION 145 FREEDOM OFTHE PRESS 146 THE FREEDOM OF REUGION 146 PRIVACY 147 DEFINITION OF TERMS 149 UCENSING 153 LEADERS’ CRITICISM 153 THE HEADS OF FRIENDLY COUNTRIES 154 ARMY INFORMATION 155 QUAUnCATIONS 156 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 161 ER SIX - THE RESULTS OF THE NEWSPAPER 170 CONTENT ANALYSIS ONE - THE QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 172 FOREIGN RELATION NEWS 175 THE TOPICS 177 NEWS SOURCES 185 SECTION TWO - THE QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 187 THE EVENTS AND TONE OF THE NEWS STORIES 187 SYRIA 189 JORDAN 191 KUWAIT 193 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 196 IV GNAPTER SEVEN - THE SURVEY FINDINGS 199 ONE - THE MEANING OF PRESS 201 FREEDOM AS SEEN BY THE SYRIAN, JORDANIAN AND KUWAITI JOURNALISTS GENERAL STATEMENT FOR FREEDOM OF THE PRESS 204 THE FREEDOM OF THE PRESS IN THE CONSTITUTION 207 THE POUTICAL DECISIONS OF THE NEWSPAPERS 209 THE WESTERN MEDIA ARE BETTER THAN ... 210 THE MOST BEUEVABLE SOURCE FOR INTERNATIONAL 212 NEWS THE RANKING OF THE FREE PRESS IN THE WORLD 213 SECTION TWO - THE JOURNALISTS' IMAGE 217 OF THE TWO SUPERPOWERS THE COVERAGE OF THE TWO SUPERPOWERS 222 SECTION THREE - THE PROFILE OF THE 224 JOURNALISTS SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 234 ER EIGHT - CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS 242 OF RESEARCH THE JOURNAUSTS' OPINIONS 249 POUCYIMPUCATIONS OF RESEARCH 255 258 1 267 ENÛIX 2 272 284 LIST OF TABLES PAGE NO TABLE 1 THE NUMBER OF NEWSPAPER STORIES 71 TABLE 2 MAJOR CURRENT DAILY AND WEEKLY 125 NEWSPAPERS IN JORDAN TABLE 3 THE SELECTION OF THE THREE 171 COUNTRIES' NEWSPAPERS TABLE 4 THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TWO 172 SUPERPOWERS' NEWS STORIES TABLE 5 THE NATURE OF THE TWO 173 SUPERPOWERS' NEWS STORIES TABLE 6 THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TWO 174 SUPERPOWERS' NEWS IN THE THREE COUNTRIES' PRESS TABLE 7 THE COUNTRIES WHICH WERE LINKED 176 WITH THE TWO SUPERPOWERS TABLE 8 POLITICS IN USA NEWS STORIES 177 TABLE 9 POLITICS IN SOVIET NEWS STORIES 178 TABLE 10 POLITICAL AND MILITARY INVOLVEMENT 178 OF THE USA TABLE 11 POLITICAL AND MILITARY INVOLVEMENT 179 OF THE SOVIET UNION TABLE 12 MILITARY IN USA NEWS STORIES 179 TABLE 13 MILITARY IN SOVIET NEWS STORIES 180 TABLE 14 ECONOMICS IN USA NEWS STORIES 180 TABLE 15 ECONOMICS IN SOVIET NEWS STORIES 181 TABLE 16 ACCIDENTS IN USA NEWS STORIES 181 TABLE 17 ACCIDENTS IN SOVIET NEWS STORIES 182 TABLE 18 RELIGION IN US A AND SOVIET NEWS 182 STORIES TABLE 19 SCIENCE IN USA AND SOVIET NEWS 182 STORIES TABLE 20 EDUCATION ESf USA AND SOVIET NEWS 183 STORIES VI TABLE 21 HEALTH IN USA AND SOVIET NEWS 183 STORIES TABLE 22 ARTS AND CULTURE IN USA NEWS 183 STORIES TABLE 23 ARTS AND CULTURE IN SOVIET NEWS 184 STORIES TABLE 24 SPORT IN USA NEWS STORIES 184 TABLE 25 SPORT IN SOVIET NEWS STORIES 184 TABLE 26 THE DEPENDENCE OF THE THREE 186 COUNTRIES ON THE INTERNATIONAL AND HOME NEWS AGENCIES TABLE 27 THE TONE OF THE TWO SUPERPOWERS' 188 NEWS STORIES WHICH THE SYRIAN, KUWAITI AND JORDANIAN JOURNALISTS ADOPTED WHEN THEY EDITED THE UNITED STATES AND THE SOVIET UNION NEWS TABLE 28 THE MEANING OF FREEDOM OF THE PRESS 202 TABLE 29 PROPORTION OF JOURNALISTS WISHING 204 TO SEE CHANGE IN PRESS LAW TABLE 30 A SURVEY CONCERNING WHETHER 205 THERE SHOULD BE A LAW TO PROTECT JOURNALISTS FROM THE GOVERNMENT TABLE 31 VIEWS CONCERNING GOVERNMENTAL 206 INFLUENCE OVER THE PRESS TABLE 32 THE AGREEMENT WITH THE THIRD WORLD 208 CONSTITUTIONS TABLE 33 PRIVATISATION OF NEWSPAPERS 209 TABLE 34 THE DEGREE OF JOURNALISTS’ 209 CONTRIBUTION IN MAKING A POLITICAL DECISION TABLE 35 WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR MAKING THE 210 P O L m aA L DECISIONS OR POLICY FOR THE NEWSPAPERS TABLE 36(a) RESPONSES TO THE STATEMENT THAT 211 THE WESTERN MEDIA ARE BETTER THAN THE THIRD WORLD MEDIA TABLE 36(b) VIEWS ON THE CAUSE FOR THE 212 DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN MEDIA TABLE 37(a) THE MOST BELIEVABLE SOURCE FOR 213 INTERNATIONAL NEWS VII TABLE 37(b) THE SECOND MOST BELIEVABLE SOURCE 213 TABLE 38(a) THE RANKING OF THE FREE COUNTRIES' 214 PRESS TABLE 38(b) A MORE DETAILED RANKING OF TABLE 48(a) 215 TABLE 39 RESPONSES TO THE STATEMENT THAT THE 217 USA IS A CIVILIZED, TECHNOLOGICAL AND HUMANITARIAN COUNTRY TABLE 40 RESPONSES TO THE STATEMENT THAT 218 THE SOVIET UNION IS A CIVILIZED. TECHNOLOGICAL AND HUMANITARIAN COUNTRY TABLE 41 RESPONSES TO THE STATEMENT THAT 219 THE UNITED STATES IS WORKING FOR PEACE IN THE WORLD TABLE 42 RESPONSES TO THE STATEMENT THAT 219 THE SOVIET UNION IS WORKING FOR PEACE IN THE WORLD TABLE 43 RESPONSES TO THE STATEMENT THAT 220 THE UNITED STATES IS SELF-SEEKING TABLE 44 RESPONSES TO THE STATEMENT THAT 221 THE SOVIET UNION IS SELF-SEEKING TABLE 45 RESPONSES TO THE STATEMENT THAT 221 THE UNITED STATES HAVE IMPROVED THEIR FOREIGN POLICY DURING THE LAST TWENTY YEARS TABLE 46 RESPONSES TO THE STATEMENT THAT 222 THE SOVIET UNION HAVE IMPROVED THEIR FOREIGN POLICY DURING THE LAST TWENTY YEARS TABLE 47 SHOWS THE AMOUNT OF THE TWO 223 SUPERPOWERS' NEWS COVERAGE IN THE THREE COUNTRIES' NEWSPAPERS TABLE 48 THE PRESENTATION OF JOURNALISTS' 225 EXPERIENCES TABLE 49 HOW THE JOURNALISTS ENJOY WORKING 225 IN THEIR PROFESSION TABLE 50 THE THREE COUNTRIES' JOURNAUSTS 226 LEVEL OF EDUCATION VIII TABLE 51 SHOWS FROM WHERE THEY OBTAINED 227 THEIR EDUCATION TABLE 52 THE PERCENTAGE OF THOSE LISTENING 228 TO INTERNATIONAL RADIO TABLE 53 THE TIME SPENT LISTENING TO 228 INTERNATIONAL RADIO TABLE 54 THE LANGUAGE THEY LISTEN TO ON 229 INTERNATIONAL RADIO TABLE 55 THE PERCENTAGE OF THE THREE 230 COUNTRIES' JOURNALISTS READING THE FOREIGN NEWS TABLE 56 THE REASONS WHY SOME JOURNALISTS 231 DO NOT READ THE FOREIGN PRESS TABLE 57 THE PERCENTAGE OF JOURNALISTS WHO 232 HAVE VISITED THE UNITED STATES AND THE SOVIET UNION TABLE 58 WHAT THE JOURNALISTS READ 233 IX as3irîE®îDisr(Siriî®$î Conducting research on the issue of freedom in the Arab world is not an easy task. This is mainly due to the lack of previous research upon which a scholar can base hypotheses and objectives for his study. It is also due to a lack of freedom for researchers and scholars to tackle this important topic of inquiry. Governments in Arab states control and direct what can be researched, and for which purpose.