Tire Engineering Tire Engineering An Introduction Brendan Rodgers First edition published 2021 by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 and by CRC Press 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN © 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher can- not assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. 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ISBN: 978-0-367-44228-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-02296-1 (ebk) Typeset in Times by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India Visit the [companion website/eResources]: [insert comp website/eResources URL] Contents Preface.......................................................................................................................xi Author Biography ................................................................................................... xiii Glossary ...................................................................................................................xv Chapter 1 Introduction to Tire Engineering .........................................................1 1.1 Introduction to the Global Tire Industry ...................................1 1.2 Tire Technology .........................................................................3 1.3 Tire Construction .......................................................................6 1.4 Mission Profile and Design Envelopes .................................... 10 1.5 Dimensions and Nomenclature ................................................12 1.6 Tire Speed and Load Rating .................................................... 16 1.7 Trends in Tire Sizes ................................................................. 19 1.8 Secondary Factors Influencing Tire Design. ...........................20 1.9 Off-Road Tires ......................................................................... 21 1.10 Farm Tires ...............................................................................22 1.11 Aircraft Tires ...........................................................................23 1.12 Tire Material Composition ......................................................23 1.13 Summary .................................................................................23 References ..........................................................................................24 Chapter 2 Tire Tread Technology .......................................................................27 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................27 2.2 Tread Compounds....................................................................27 2.3 Radial Tire Tread Design Parameters .....................................32 2.4 Tire Footprint Pressure ............................................................42 2.5 Tread Extrusion Contour ......................................................... 43 2.6 Tread Radius ............................................................................45 2.7 Tread Wear Mechanisms .........................................................46 2.8 Summary .................................................................................48 References ..........................................................................................49 Chapter 3 Tire Casing Construction ................................................................... 51 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 51 3.2 Casing Components ................................................................. 51 3.3 Belt Design ..............................................................................54 3.4 Casing Construction ................................................................57 3.5 Inner Liner and Barrier ........................................................... 61 3.6 Ply ............................................................................................62 3.7 Sidewall ...................................................................................62 v vi Contents 3.8 Bead .........................................................................................64 3.9 Apex (Bead Filler) ...................................................................64 3.10 Chafer (Toe Guard)..................................................................65 3.11 Shoulder Wedge .......................................................................65 3.12 Model Compound Line-up ......................................................65 3.13 Summary .................................................................................66 References ..........................................................................................69 Chapter 4 Tire Innerliner .................................................................................... 71 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 71 4.2 Production of Bromobutyl Rubber .......................................... 71 4.3 Tire Innerliner ......................................................................... 75 4.4 Tire Inflation Pressure Loss Rate (IPLR) ................................78 4.5 Tire Intra-carcass Pressure (ICP) ............................................78 4.6 Tire Innerliner Compound Properties .....................................80 4.7 Innerliner and Tire Manufacturing .........................................85 4.8 Nitrogen Inflation and New Technologies ...............................90 4.9 Vulcanization of Halobutyl Tire Innerliner Compounds ........ 91 4.10 Summary .................................................................................92 References ..........................................................................................92 Chapter 5 Tire Reinforcements ...........................................................................95 5.1 Introduction .............................................................................95 5.2 Fabric Tire Cords .....................................................................98 5.3 Cord Construction ...................................................................99 5.4 Fabric Production .................................................................. 101 5.5 Cord-to-Rubber Compound Adhesive ................................... 102 5.6 Steel Cord .............................................................................. 102 5.7 Mechanism of Brass-Coated Steel Wire-to-Rubber Adhesion ................................................................................ 106 5.8 Bead Wire .............................................................................. 108 5.9 Summary ............................................................................... 110 References ........................................................................................ 110 Chapter 6 Radial Tire Materials Technology and Rubber Compounding ........ 111 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 111 6.2 Polymers Used in Tires.......................................................... 111 6.3 Production of Natural Rubber ............................................... 114 6.4 Natural Rubber Products and Grades .................................... 116 6.4.1 TSR-L ....................................................................... 117 6.4.2 TSR-5 ........................................................................ 118 6.4.3 TSR-10 ...................................................................... 119 6.4.4 TSR-20 ...................................................................... 119 Contents vii 6.4.5 TSR-50 ...................................................................... 119 6.5 Quality ...................................................................................120 6.6 Properties of Natural Rubber Compounds ............................124 6.7 Synthetic Elastomers Used in Tires .......................................125 6.8 Carbon Black and its Properties ............................................ 133 6.9 Silica, Silicates, and Other Inorganic Fillers ......................... 134 6.10 Protectant Systems ...............................................................