Peace under Fire: Building the Media Agenda in Post-Genocide Rwanda A dissertation presented to the faculty of the Scripps College of Communication of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Sally Ann Cruikshank May 2013 © 2013 Sally Ann Cruikshank. All Rights Reserved. This dissertation titled Peace under Fire: Building the Media Agenda in Post-Genocide Rwanda by SALLY ANN CRUIKSHANK has been approved for the E. W. Scripps School of Journalism and the Scripps College of Communication by Yusuf Kalyango, Jr. Associate Professor of Journalism Scott Titsworth Dean, Scripps College of Communication ii ABSTRACT CRUIKSHANK, SALLY ANN, Ph.D., May 2013, Mass Communication- Journalism Peace under Fire: Building the Media Agenda in Post-Genocide Rwanda Director of Dissertation: Yusuf Kalyango, Jr. Following the 1994 genocide, in which the media played a significant role, the government enacted strict media laws that have led to a climate of self-censorship and government influence on the media. This study examined the processes of agenda building and frame building in the media from the perspective of Rwandan journalists and media professionals. It further examined the media within the framework of peace journalism. The study used both a qualitative and quantitative approach. A series of 35 in-depth interviews were conducted with Rwandan journalists and media professionals, along with a survey of 101 journalists. Results showed that journalists and media professionals in Rwanda face several challenges, including indirect government censorship, few opportunities for training, and a lack of resources including low pay. According to the respondents, the government strongly influences the media agenda. Particularly in Kigali, the country’s capital and center of government business, politics drives the media agenda. In the rural areas, however, journalists report stories focused more on the community than politics. iii Dedicated in memory of: My mother, Carolyn, my first and greatest teacher My beautiful friend, Sabrina, and our many adventures, including that cricket book iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, I would like to offer my deepest gratitude to my chair and mentor, Dr. Yusuf Kalyango, Jr. “Dr. K.” has been there from the beginning of my graduate career. Besides also chairing my master’s thesis, my first quarter in graduate school began in his class. Working with him has provided me with unending opportunities. I am forever grateful to have been able to work with an internationalist and scholar of his caliber, and I look forward to our future collaborations. Every graduate student should have the opportunity to learn from someone as caring and thoughtful as Dr. Carson B Wagner. In his class, I first realized the practicality of a good theory, and I have been fortunate to be able to pick his super-computer brain these last five years. Special thanks to Dr. David Mould, who agreed to be part of my committee even though he was “retiring.” As this dissertation began in his class, it is only fitting that he is here for its end. His career advice and guidance has been invaluable, and I will always count our SUSI adventure in Atlanta as one of the most memorable events of my time at Ohio University. I would also like to thank Dr. Peter Brobst, from the Contemporary History Institute, for being part of my committee. His insight into the historical context of this research helped bring the whole study into focus. I certainly would not have been able to accomplish any of this if it were not for the support of the entire E.W. Scripps School of Journalism faculty and staff, especially its director, Dr. Robert Stewart. Besides being part of my master’s thesis committee, he somehow found a way to fund my research trip to Africa. His enthusiasm for journalism and education is unparalleled, and the school is fortunate to have him at the helm. v Murakoze cyane to all the journalists in Rwanda who shared their inspirational stories with me. I would especially like to offer my heartfelt thanks to Julien Niyingabira Mahoro. I will always be grateful for his friendship and the warm welcome he and his family gave me in Kigali. In the interest of his safety, due to recent events in Rwanda, I will not name my research assistant here. He deserves so much credit, however, as his hard work and dedication helped turn this dissertation idea into reality. I will say that as a journalist, he represents the bright future that is possible for Rwanda. Of all the blessings I have been given, I perhaps feel most fortunate for my family. I am especially indebted to my Aunt Brenda and Uncle Jim for adopting me and giving me so much love and affection. My (sometimes) caring brother, T.G. had the good sense to marry the lovely Angie, and then produce two of the most incredible nieces, Alexandra and Paige, an aunt could want. Besides her constant support, my Aunt Doris also passed along to me her sense of adventure, a necessity for navigating any graduate degree. No acknowledgement would be complete without mentioning my best friend, Rebecca, who has been there for me through everything. Here is to another 20 years of road trips and good times. Finally, I would like to thank my Scripps family, the group of fellow grad students that pulled me through all this. Our Thursday nights at Jackie O’s made all the hard work and sleepless nights worth it in the end. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract..............................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures..................................................................................................................... x Chapter 1: Introduction....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research Objectives.................................................................................................. 2 1.2 Organization of the Study......................................................................................... 3 Chapter 2: The Media and the Genocide ............................................................................ 4 2.1 The Media in Rwanda............................................................................................... 6 2.2 Defining Genocide.................................................................................................. 10 2.3 The Genocide Begins.............................................................................................. 12 2.4 The Genocide Ends................................................................................................. 14 2.5 “The Media Trial”................................................................................................... 16 2.6 Commemoration and Reconciliation ...................................................................... 19 2.7 The Hate Media’s Legacy....................................................................................... 21 Chapter 3: Agenda Building, Frame Building, and Peace Journalism ............................. 26 3.1 Agenda Building..................................................................................................... 26 3.2 Frame Building ....................................................................................................... 30 3.3 Peace Journalism..................................................................................................... 32 Chapter 4: Methodology ................................................................................................... 38 4.1 In-depth Interviews................................................................................................. 39 4.2 Survey ..................................................................................................................... 44 4.3 Research Questions................................................................................................. 46 Chapter 5: Critical Case Study of Rwandan Media.......................................................... 48 5.1 Media Decisions and Sources................................................................................. 48 5.1.1 The Rise of Community Journalism ................................................................ 51 5.1.2 Wary Sources ................................................................................................... 55 5.2 Censorship in the Media ......................................................................................... 58 5.3 Media Challenges ................................................................................................... 72 vii 5.3.1 “A Culture of Hiding”...................................................................................... 73 5.3.2 Education and the Media ................................................................................. 80 5.3.3 A Digital Divide............................................................................................... 88 5.3.4 Scarce Resources ............................................................................................. 91 5.3.5 Women in the Media.......................................................................................