Indigenous language revitalisation in Aotearoa New Zealand & Alba Scotland Catriona Elizabeth Timms (Kate Timms-Dean) A thesis submitted to the University of Otago in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. i 28 February 2013 1 Table of Contents List of Tables _________________________________________________________________ 5 List of Figures ________________________________________________________________ 5 List of Abbreviations ___________________________________________________________ 6 Glossary of Māori terms ________________________________________________________ 9 Glossary of Gàidhlig terms _____________________________________________________ 18 Mihimihi ___________________________________________________________________ 20 Acknowledgements ___________________________________________________________ 22 Abstract ____________________________________________________________________ 24 Introduction: Why revive endangered languages? __________________________________ 25 Defining Indigenous language revitalisation __________________________________ 27 Case Study 1: Te reo Māori in Aotearoa New Zealand __________________________ 32 Case Study 2: Gàidhlig in Alba Scotland ______________________________________ 38 Conclusion __________________________________________________________________ 45 1. Language Policy and Planning _________________________________________________ 52 What is language planning and language policy? ______________________________ 53 Why use language policy and planning in indigenous language revitalisation? _______ 55 How can language policy and planning be best employed to support language revitalisation? __________________________________________________________ 57 Māori language policy and planning ______________________________________________ 59 The Māori Language Act 1987 _____________________________________________ 60 Te Rautaki Reo Māori - the Māori Language Strategy ___________________________ 63 Iwi language planning ___________________________________________________ 67 Conclusion ____________________________________________________________ 69 Gaelic language policy and planning in Alba Scotland ________________________________ 69 European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages __________________________ 70 The 2005 Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act ____________________________________ 74 Plana Cànain Nàiseanta Gàidhlig - the National Plan for Gàidhlig __________________ 78 Gàidhlig language plans for public authorities ________________________________ 80 Conclusion ____________________________________________________________ 82 Discussion __________________________________________________________________ 82 2. Education ________________________________________________________________ 86 Can schools (and other educational institutions) save languages? _________________ 86 How should education for language revitalisation be undertaken? ________________ 89 Māori language education _____________________________________________________ 92 Legislation and policy ____________________________________________________ 92 Early childhood education ________________________________________________ 96 Primary and secondary schooling _________________________________________ 101 2 Tertiary education _____________________________________________________ 103 Adult education _______________________________________________________ 106 Mainstream education __________________________________________________ 109 Conclusion ___________________________________________________________ 113 Gàidhlig language education in Alba Scotland _____________________________________ 114 Legislation and policy ___________________________________________________ 115 Early childhood education _______________________________________________ 118 Primary and secondary schooling _________________________________________ 121 Tertiary education _____________________________________________________ 125 Adult education _______________________________________________________ 130 Mainstream education __________________________________________________ 134 Conclusion ___________________________________________________________ 138 Discussion _________________________________________________________________ 139 3: The Media _______________________________________________________________ 144 How can the media best be utilised to support language revitalisation? ___________ 144 Māori-language media _______________________________________________________ 146 Legislation and policy ___________________________________________________ 146 Radio ________________________________________________________________ 150 Television- ___________________________________________________________ 152 The Internet __________________________________________________________ 161 Conclusion ___________________________________________________________ 162 Gàidhlig media _____________________________________________________________ 163 Legislation and policy ___________________________________________________ 163 Radio ________________________________________________________________ 165 Television ____________________________________________________________ 166 The Internet __________________________________________________________ 171 Conclusion ___________________________________________________________ 172 Discussion _________________________________________________________________ 173 4. Popular Culture ___________________________________________________________ 176 Legislation and policy ________________________________________________________ 176 Legislation and policy for Māori popular culture ______________________________ 177 Legislation and policy for Gàidhlig popular culture ____________________________ 178 Summary ____________________________________________________________ 181 Print culture _______________________________________________________________ 182 Māori print culture _____________________________________________________ 183 Gàidhlig print culture ___________________________________________________ 186 Summary ____________________________________________________________ 193 Performing arts _____________________________________________________________ 193 Māori performing arts __________________________________________________ 194 Gàidhlig performing arts ________________________________________________ 201 Summary ____________________________________________________________ 205 Popular music ______________________________________________________________ 206 3 Māori popular music ___________________________________________________ 207 Gàidhlig popular music __________________________________________________ 213 Summary ____________________________________________________________ 216 Discussion _________________________________________________________________ 217 5. Conclusion _______________________________________________________________ 220 What is language revitalisation? And how can it be achieved? ________________________ 220 Indigenous language revitalisation in Aotearoa New Zealand and Alba Scotland __________ 222 References ________________________________________________________________ 227 Appendix 1: Ethical approval application _________________________________________ 277 Appendix 2: Māori research ethics application ____________________________________ 292 Appendix 3: Māori-language speakers, 1974-2006 _________________________________ 294 Appendix 4: Gaelic speakers, 1881-2001 _________________________________________ 295 Appendix 5: Language planning principles ________________________________________ 296 Appendix 6: Fishman’s (1991) GIDS and language planning __________________________ 297 Appendix 7: WAI 11: Comparison of claimants’ demands, the Waitangi Tribunal’s recommendations and the Māori Language Act’s provisions _________________________ 298 Appendix 8: Recommendations on the implementation of the Māori Language Strategy ___ 299 Appendix 9: Recommendations and responses to Gàidhlig language planning ___________ 300 Appendix 10: Comparison of provision for Gàidhlig in the Western Isles and Glasgow _____ 301 Appendix 11: Fishman’s (1991) GIDS and education ________________________________ 302 Appendix 12: Ten help/hinder factors for the development of adult second-language proficiency _________________________________________________________________ 303 Appendix 13: Ten principles of effective language instruction ________________________ 304 Appendix 14: Number of TKR and children attending, 1983-2010 _____________________ 305 Appendix 15: Competency rates of Māori-language speakers by age, 2006 ______________ 306 Appendix 16: Te Aho Matua ___________________________________________________ 307 Appendix 17: Number of KKM and number of children attending, 1992-2010 ____________ 308 Appendix 18: Expectations of students and tutors in Te Ataarangi _____________________ 309 Appendix 19: Students studying Gàidhlig by year, 2001-2006 _________________________ 310 Appendix 20: A framework for language revitalisation ______________________________ 311 4 List of Tables 1 Ethical approval application _____________________________________________ 277 2 Māori research ethics application ________________________________________ 292 3 Māori language speakers, 1974-2006 ______________________________________ 293 4 Gaelic speakers, 1881-2001 _____________________________________________ 294 5 Language planning principles ____________________________________________ 295 6 Fishman’s (1991) GIDS