Fakultät Forst-, Geo- und Hydrowissenschaften Paradigmatic Tendencies in Cartography: A Synthesis of the Scientific-Empirical, Critical and Post-Representational Perspectives Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr. rer. nat.) vorgelegt von M.Sc. Pablo Iván Azócar Fernández Gutachter: Herr Prof. Dr. phil.habil. Manfred F. Buchroithner Technische Universität Dresden Herr Prof. Dr. Zsolt G. Török Eötvös Lórand University, Budapest Dresden, February 09, 2012 Die Übereinstimmung dieses Exemplars mit dem Original der Dissertation zum Thema: „Paradigmatic Tendencies in Cartography: A Synthesis of the Scientific-Empirical, Critical and Post-Representational Perspectives“ wird hiermit bestätigt. ……………………………………….…. Ort, Datum Azócar, Pablo ……………………………………….…. Unterschrift (Vorname Name) i Abstract Maps have been important elements of visual representation in the development of different societies, and for this reason they have mainly been considered from a practical and utilitarian point of view. This means that cartographers or mapmakers have largely focused on the technical aspects of the cartographic products, and cartography has given little attention to both its theoretical component and to its philosophical and epistemological aspects. The current study is dedicated to consider these views. In this study the main trends, thoughts and different directions in cartography during positivism/empiricism, neo-positivism and post-structuralism are reviewed; and cartography is analysed under the modernism and post-modernism periods. Some of the arguments proposed by philosophers such as Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper are examined as important contributions in our understanding of the development of cartography and mapping. This study also incorporates the idea or concept of paradigm, which has been taken from the field of the epistemology of sciences. The aforementioned opens a space to analyse cartography in terms of a paradigm shift. In the analysis of each trend within contemporary cartography – from the second half of the twentieth century until today – it is necessary to keep in mind the theoretical scheme of a scientific discipline (object of study, research aims, methods and approaches, and results). This helps to determine the body of knowledge in cartography. It is also important to consider the epistemological context in which the tendencies are developed: positivism/empiricism, realism/structuralism and idealism/hermeneutic. In this way, by considering three epistemological levels - essentialist/ontical (scientific), deconstructive (sociological), and ontological (emergent) - some paradigmatic tendencies are postulated. The first level results in tendencies such as cartographic communication, cartographic semiotics, analytical cartography and cartographic visualisation - all of these belong to the scientific-empirical ii perspective. In the second level, we have critical cartography, belonging to the critical perspective and that confronts the scientific stances. Finally, in the third level the so-called post-representational cartography arises in open opposition to the traditional representational cartography. iii Kurzfassung Im Entwicklungsprozess verschiedener Gesellschaften sind Karten immer wichtige Elemente visueller Darstellung gewesen. Karten wurden meist aus einer praktischen und utilitaristischen Sicht betrachtet. Das heißt, dass sich Kartographen oder Kartenmacher gezielt auf die technischen Aspekte kartographischer Produkte fokussiert haben, und Kartographie sich nur wenig mit den theoretischen Komponenten und philosophischen oder epistemologischen Aspekten auseinandergesetzt hat. Diese Arbeit verfolgt das Ziel, diese Sichten zu analysieren. Diese Studie untersucht die verschiedenen kartographischen Denkrichtungen, die während des Positivismus/Empirismus, des Neo-Positivismus und der Post- Strukturalismusperioden entstanden sind und analysiert Kartographie der Moderne und post-moderner Perioden. Argumente von Philosophen wie Ludwig Wittgenstein und Karl Popper werden untersucht als wichtige Beiträge zu unserem Verständnis der Entwicklung der Kartographie. Diese Arbeit berücksichtigt auch das Konzept des Paradigmas, welches aus dem Gebiet der wissenschaftlichen Epistemologie adaptiert wurde. Dies eröffnet die Möglichkeit, Kartographie hinsichtlich eines Paradigmenwechsels analysieren zu können. Wenn man die Tendenzen der zeitgenössischen Kartographie – von der zweiten Hälfte des zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts bis heute – studiert, muss der theoretische Rahmen einer wissenschaftlichen Disziplin (Forschungsobjekt, Forschungsziel, Arbeitsmethodik und Ergebnisse) berücksichtigt werden. Dies erlaubt es, das gesammelte Wissen der Kartographie zu ermitteln. Ebenfalls wichtig ist die Berücksichtigung des epistemologischen Kontexts, in dem diese Tendenzen entstanden: Positivismus/Empirismus, Realismus/Strukturalismus und Idealismus/Hermeneutik. Unter Berücksichtigung dreier epistemologischer Ebenen – Essenzialisten/ontisch (wissenschaftlich), dekonstructiv (soziologisch) und ontologisch (emergent) – iv werden ausgewählte paradigmatische Tendenzen postuliert. Die erste Ebene ergibt Tendenzen wie die kartographische Kommunikation, die kartographische Semiotik, die analytische Kartographie und die kartographische Visualisierung, die alle zu der wissenschaftlich-empirischen Perspektive gehören. Zur zweiten Ebene gehört die kritische Kartographie, welche der kritischen Perspektive zugeordnet ist und die wissenschaftliche Standpunkte konfrontiert. Die so genannte post-repräsentative Kartographie entsteht aus der dritten Ebene im offenen Widerstand zur traditionellen repräsentativen Kartographie. v Acknowledgments First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. Manfred F. Buchroithner for his steady interest in my work. His continued meetings, discussions and comments, and the access he has given me to bibliographical references have been very helpful during this long process of study. I also wish to thank Prof. Wolf G. Koch and Dr. Alexander Wolodtschenko for their important contribution in the search for references in the topics studied. I am grateful to Mrs. Sharma and all the staff at the Institute for Cartography, and to other PhD students especially from Egypt, Sudan and Syria. My sincere gratitude is extended to the members of the Lehrstuhl für Raumentwicklung, their Director Prof. Berhnard Müller and Dr. Paulina Schiappaccasse for their collaboration with me as a PhD student, and very especially to Mrs. Cindy Krause for her generous help in tandem-language. They have all been very helpful and friendly during my stay in Dresden. I also wish to thank Dr. Andrea Contreras for her valuable and disinterested help in the editorial revision of this document, and for her practical comments about the writing of the text itself. I cannot forget mentioning Mrs. Gabriele Feyler (Campusbüro “Unit-mit-Kind”) who has been a wonderful person, and great help to me and my family during the process of integration for foreign students at the TU-Dresden. My appreciation is also extended to the Metropolitan Technological University (Universidad Tecnológica Metropolitana, Chile) for their financial support during my studies in Germany, as well as to the authorities and colleagues of the Department of Cartography. Finally, I wish to thank all the support that I have received from my beloved wife Mónica and from my two lovely daughters Consuelo and Fernanda. Their unconditional love has allowed me to pursuit this rewarding challenge in my life. vi Table of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................... i Kurzfassung ........................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments ................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ......................................................................................................... ix List of Tables ........................................................................................................... x 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Motivation ..................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Thesis Structure, Hypotheses, Questions and Objectives of Investigation .. 2 2 Philosophy, Epistemology and Cartography ........................................................ 8 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Philosophy and Epistemology: Some Scopes ............................................... 8 2.3 Cartography and Knowledge of the World: Philosophical and Epistemological Implications .................................................................... 10 2.4 Different “Isms” and their Repercussions in Cartography and Mapping ...... 13 2.4.1 Positivism and Empiricism .................................................................... 13 2.4.2 Logical Positivism or Neo-Positivism .................................................... 17 2.4.3 Geography and Cartography under the Logical Positivism Approach .. 20 2.5 Ludwig Wittgenstein. A philosophical Framework Applied to