E5.0 BOTANICAL AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES This section on the terrestrial resources (plants and wildlife) associated with the Klamath Hydroelectric Project (Project) contains the following elements: • A description of the existing botanical and wildlife resources in the study area (see Figure E5.1-1) • A discussion of agency consultation related to terrestrial resources • Summaries of the studies conducted by PacifiCorp on wildlife and vegetation • A summary of proposed enhancement measures • A discussion of continuing impacts E5.1 HISTORICAL TERRESTRIAL RESOURCES The terrestrial resources in the Project vicinity historically have been affected by humans for a long period of time. Much of the information on Native American use of the Klamath River Canyon comes from the archaeological investigations conducted by Gleason (2001). Native Americans have been part of the Klamath River ecosystem for at least the last 7,500 years (Gleason, 2001). The Upland Takelma, Shasta, Klamath, and Modoc tribes all used various portions of the study area; the Yurok Tribe historically used the lands along the Lower Klamath River. Before settlement by Europeans, Native Americans affected terrestrial resources through clearing vegetation for villages; harvesting plants and animals for food, medicine, and other uses; and using fire to manage vegetation. The most intensive uses occurred close to the river. Apparently, many of the flat terraces in the canyon were used at one time or another as village- sized settlements. The existing Topsy Grade Road is near the site of a Native American trail. Beginning in about 1870, homesteaders established ranches in the Klamath River Canyon. Apparently, the canyon was mostly unoccupied by any Native American tribes after this time. The following sections provide a brief discussion of historical botanical and wildlife resources. E5.1.1 Botanical Resources Native Americans used botanical resources in the area in a variety of ways, and plant gathering was important for food most of the year. Numerous species were used, with foliage, fruit, geophytes, seeds/nuts, or other products being harvested (Gleason, 2001). Most of the plant resources were obtained from known localities that were visited regularly. Fires were used by the Native Americans for many reasons, but especially the management of various subsistence resources (Gleason, 2001). Fire frequently has been suggested as a major tool used by Native Americans, especially in oak habitat. Many of the ecosystems in arid areas (e.g., oak [Quercus spp.] woodlands, chaparral, and ponderosa pine [Pinus ponderosa] forests) are created and maintained by periodic wildfires (Franklin and Dyrness, 1988). Increased fire frequency generally would have increased oak productivity, decreased conifer germination, and decreased shrub undergrowth. © February 2004 PacifiCorp Exhibit E Wildlife and Botanical Resources.DOC Exhibit E Page 5-1 PacifiCorp Klamath Hydroelectric Project FERC No. 2082 With European settlement, livestock grazing substantially increased in the open range of the study area. Livestock grazing has had the greatest impact on botanical resources in the area. Beginning in the late 1800s, cattle and sheep were grazed in the area; however, only cattle have been grazed since the early 1900s. By approximately 1890, commercial logging was initiated in the Klamath River Canyon vicinity. Evidence of previous logging is common throughout the area. As timber operations increased, logs were slid down adjacent slopes to the Klamath River and transported to the old town of Klamathon. In the upper portion of the canyon, ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) were the dominant tree species in the early 1900s, representing 22 to 60 percent of the trees (BLM, 1996). Approximately 100 years ago, white fir (Abies amabilis) represented less than 10 percent of the trees. In some areas, the combination of logging and fire suppression has decreased the numbers of ponderosa pine and increased the numbers grand fir (Abies grandis)) and white fir (BLM, 1996, 1998). The forest inventory data collected by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) (BLM, 1996) in the Pokegama landscape analysis showed a 15 to 78 percent reduction of ponderosa pine by 1996 compared to historical densities. Other impacts of logging include the increase of chaparral species, such as manzanita (Acrtostaphylos patula), wedgeleaf ceanothus (Ceanothus cuneatus), and rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus), but also an increase in shrub decadence under the more dense overstory (BLM, 1996). The combination of logging, grazing, and general wildfire suppression has resulted in forest stands that have high levels of fire fuel (dense and decadent shrubs and overstocked forests with abundant dead wood) that are more susceptible to high severity disturbances, such as stand- replacement wildfire, diseases, and insect attacks than what occurred before European settlement (Morgan et al. 1993). Before European influence, frequent low intensity fires burned most of the coarse woody debris (CWD) in complex mosaics in ponderosa pine forests and kept the severity of fires lower than after European settlement (Agee, 1993). Lithosol meadows provide habitat for the numerous geophytic plant species (Gleason, 2001). These meadows are distributed throughout the watershed, but are most abundant on the plateau above the canyon and north of Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs. Noxious weeds were introduced into the western United States mostly from Eurasia and were not present in the Klamath River study area before European settlement in the late 1800s (BLM, 1996). The early homesteaders who moved into the Klamath River cleared the river terraces for cultivation of crops, such as alfalfa and timothy, and ranching purposes (Gleason, 2001). Beginning in the 1940s, non-native plant species were introduced for grazing, forestry, transmission line rights-of-way (ROW), and road cuts. Some areas were seeded with non-native grasses, such as bulbous bluegrass (Poa bulbosa) and Pleum pratense, that out-competed native species, while in other areas non-native species spread through natural propagation. Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) and yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis) now dominate areas that receive heavy grazing pressure. Yellow starthistle was introduced into California by beekeepers and has infested many thousands of acres in the western United States. Even though noxious weeds have come to dominate many areas in the Klamath Canyon (the area between Copco reservoir and J.C. Boyle dam), there are many refugia for native plant communities (Gleason, 2001). © February 2004 PacifiCorp Exhibit E Page 5-2 Exhibit E Wildlife and Botanical Resources.DOC PacifiCorp Klamath Hydroelectric Project FERC No. 2082 Figure E5.1-1 Terrestrial resources study area 11 x 17 front © February 2004 PacifiCorp Exhibit E Wildlife and Botanical Resources.DOC Exhibit E Page 5-3 PacifiCorp Klamath Hydroelectric Project FERC No. 2082 Back of Figure © February 2004 PacifiCorp Exhibit E Page 5-4 Exhibit E Wildlife and Botanical Resources.DOC PacifiCorp Klamath Hydroelectric Project FERC No. 2082 An assessment of pre-Project conditions conducted by PacifiCorp for purposes of developing an understanding of ecological factors influencing current conditions and for identifying opportunities for potential protection, mitigation, and enhancement (PM&E) measures found that, as is the case with most semi-arid rivers, historically riparian habitat was dominated by a mixture of shrub and tree species, and was restricted primarily to narrow bands along the Klamath River before Project construction (see Terrestrial Resources Final Terrestrial Report [FTR], Section 3.7). The average riparian vegetation width along the Klamath River was 23 feet (7 m), 101 feet (31 m), and 27 feet (8 m) at sections of river now occupied by Iron Gate, Copco, and J.C. Boyle reservoirs, respectively. Only along sections of the river just upstream of the present-day Copco dam was the riparian vegetation wide. Historically, riparian and wetland vegetation bordered 28 percent (J.C. Boyle reservoir), 49 percent (Copco reservoir), and 68 percent (Iron Gate reservoir) of the river and major tributary shoreline under historical conditions. Review of historical aerial photos for river reaches downstream of the dams indicates that riparian vegetation historically was quite narrow, especially in what is now the Copco No. 2 bypass. In the Keno Canyon and J.C. Boyle bypass and peaking reaches, there have been relatively minor shifts in the overall distribution and extent of riparian vegetation relative to historical conditions, although non-native plant species were likely less common in the riparian zone before European settlement and subsequent development. Substantial changes in riparian conditions have occurred in the Link River. Before Project development, much of the riparian zone was devoid of native trees and included several orchards and human settlements. E5.1.2 Wildlife Resources The Klamath River Canyon is a natural wildlife migration corridor through the Cascade Mountains. The diverse terrain and plant communities support a large number of wildlife species. The various species have been affected by direct harvest and habitat manipulation during the thousands of years of human habitation in the area. Before European settlement, Native American tribes hunted year-round for deer (Odocoileus hemionus), elk (Cervus elaphus), antelope (Antilocopra americana), bighorn sheep (Cervus canadensis), black