Delivered by Ingenta IP: 192.168.39.151 On: Sun, 26 Sep 2021 21:03:28 Copyright: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing The Emerging Role of Cubesats for Earth Observation Applications in South Africa Paidamwoyo Mhangara, The University of Witwatersrand PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING June 2020 333 June 2020 Layout.indd 333 5/18/2020 12:48:19 PM Introduction Cubesat technology has been augmented by a simultaneous acceleration in technological advancements in nano-, micro-, Cubesats usage is evolving from scientific demonstration and and miniature technologies in technical fields that include educational platforms to standardized space-borne scientif- telecommunications, (Opto)electronics, materials, sensors, ic instruments that support operational earth observation fluidics, and instrumentation (Woellert et al. 2011, Diaz et applications (Liebig 2000, Sandau 2010, Woellert et al. al. 2016). This technological wave enabled the development 2011, Qiao et al. 2013, Diaz et al. 2016, Kopacz et al. 2020). of a variety of miniaturized and novel autonomous instru- The effectiveness of Cubesat technology is being attested to ments and systems to facilitate remote measurements and globally as nanosatellites are increasingly used to support in- scientific experiments on a miniaturized platform. novative scientific and operational missions (Rose et al. 2012, Qiao et al. 2013, Xia et al. 2017, Poursanidis et al. 2019). Cubesats have been adopted by space agencies internationally Cubesats have long been recognized as having the potential for scientific tests and important scientific missions. Some to be a disruptive force that could replace large conventional prominent Cubesat programs include The National Aeronau- earth observation satellites (Southwood 2000, Diaz et al. tics and Space Administration’s (NASA) CubeSat Launch 2016, Mhangara et al. 2020). Initiative program, European Space Agency (ESA)-funded Student Space Exploration and Technology Initiative (SSETI), Cubesats have benefited from the accelerated progression to- the National Science Foundation (NSF) initiative in the USA, wards miniaturization of space-borne satellite platforms and and the Cubesat Programme at the Cape Peninsula Universi- the availability of Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) compo- ty of Technology’s French South African Institute of Technol- nents (Woellert et al. 2011, Matandirotya et al. 2013). Small ogy (F’SATI) whose Cubesats have been funded by the South satellites are generally classified into five groups known as African National Space Agency (SANSA) (Blouvac et al. 2000, Minisatellite (100–500 kg), Microsatellite (10–100 kg), Nano- Southwood 2000, Steyn et al. 2013, van satellite (1–10 kg), Picosatellite (0.1–1 Zyl et al. 2013). kg) and Femtosatellite (0.01–0.1 kg) (Sandau 2010, Woellert et al. 2011). Despite their small size, The commercial viability of using Despite their small size, Cubesats are Cubesats are increasingly Cubesats for operational earth obser- increasingly being considered as ideal vation applications has also gained platforms for hosting compact earth being considered as the attention of private companies observation instruments needed to Delivered by Ingenta (Mhangara et al. 2020). The low take critical measurements. Conven-IP: 192.168.39.151ideal platforms On: Sun, for26 Sep 2021 21:03:28 Copyright: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remotecapital Sensing layout cost, rapid development tional earth observation scientific hosting compact earth and related low-risk levels associated instruments mounted on Cubesats observation instruments with Cubesat platforms are attractive include visible and near-infrared for investors venturing into the space sensors, near-infrared spectrometers, needed to take critical industry. Many academic spin-off magnetometers, radiometers and companies are being established in- short wavelength radars (Liebig 2000, measurements. ternationally to develop and integrate Qiao et al. 2013, Diaz et al. 2016). Cubesat components and subsystems To date, at least 1200 Cubesats have as well as to provide earth observa- been launched into low-earth orbit, and this number is pre- tion data and downstream products and services (Rose et dicted to grow (Sandau 2010, Xia et al. 2017). al. 2012, Xia et al. 2017). A business value chain now exists that is comprised of manufacturers of COTS components, suppliers of Cubesat kits, providers of complete Cubesats, Cubesats Around the World companies for launch services, data vendors and providers Globally, the development of miniaturized satellite plat- for downstream value-added products and services. In a forms has been pioneered by universities (Sandau 2010, Xia recent market study of the satellite industry, the economic et al. 2017). Initially introduced as low-cost space research value of Cubesats was $152 million in 2018, and projected and engineering projects for university students, Cubesat to rise to $375 million by 2023. The earth observation and technology has proliferated in the industry and has been traffic monitoring segment constitute a large share of the widely adopted by space agencies internationally (Blouvac global Cubesat market (https://www.marketsandmarkets. et al. 2000, Liebig 2000, Southwood 2000). The growth in com/Market-Reports/cubesat-market-58068326.html). Promi- nent earth observation companies that have emerged include Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing Planet Labs, which has a constellation of more than 100 Cubesats in low earth orbit imaging over 250 million km2 of Vol. 86, No. 6, June 2020, pp. 333–340. the earth’s landmass daily. The Planet Labs Cubesat weighs 0099-1112/20/334–340 about 5kg and is 10x10x30 centimeters in size. © 2020 American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Cubesats are a feasible way of participating in space-related doi: 10.14358/PERS.86.6.333 activities due to their cheap manufacturing costs, low launch 334 June 2020 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING June 2020 Layout.indd 334 5/18/2020 12:48:19 PM cost, short development time, small size, light weight, and (Gottschalk 2010, Ngcofe and Gottschalk 2013, Steyn et al. low power requirements compared to large satellites used 2013, van Zyl et al. 2013). South Africa has a long histo- in the Landsat satellite missions and Sentinel satellite se- ry in space science and technology that dates back to the ries (Paules and Luther 2000, Woellert et al. 2011, Diaz et emergence of the space era. The country’s heritage in space al. 2016). These favorable factors are allowing developing technology can be traced as far back as the 1950’s when it countries to actively participate in satellite development was involved in amateur rocket launches. and operations. The potential of Cubesats to accelerate scientific and technological advancement of emerging econ- In a review of South Africa’s space program, Gottschalk omies and developing countries has already been articu- (Gottschalk 2010) divides the evolution of the country’s space lated (Woellert et al. 2011, Rose et al. 2012). The scholars initiative into three epochs. The first phase was from 1947- provide a concise synthesis of the history and a technical 1962 and was named the age of amateurs. The apartheid overview of Cubesats as well as a synopsis of scientific government led the second phase called the military era from applications and success stories. 1963-1993. This era involved the development of a secret mil- itary space launcher program targeted at developing recon- For several decades now, the development of satellites naissance satellites. While the period didn’t produce a flight- for earth observation applications has been dominated by ready satellite, South Africa developed a comprehensive space space-faring nations such as United States, Japan, India, infrastructure that included satellite testing, site design and Russia, European Union countries, Japan, Canada and a coastal launch facility with telemetry capacity. lately China and Brazil (Woellert et al. 2011). Despite the well-established scientific and socio-economic bene- The third phase, named the civilian era, emerged after the fits of earth observation, the capital-intensive nature and country became democratic in 1994. During this period, the engineering complexity of conventional satellite building country established several legal instruments and policies to programs limited developing countries regulate space activities and developed in constructing their own satellites. institutions and structures to coor- The advent of Cubesats have lowered The advent of Cubesats dinate them. Some of the space laws the barrier to entry for less developed implemented include the Space Affairs countries and has provided them have lowered the barrier Act 84 of 1993, Space Affairs Amend- with an invaluable opportunity to to entry for less developed ment Act 64 of 1995 and the South Delivered by Ingenta African National Space Agency Act 36 launch space programs. (van Zyl. IP: 192.168.39.151 On: Sun, 26 Sep 2021 21:03:28 2011, Rose et al. 2012, NgcofeCopyright: and Americancountries Society forand Photogrammetry has provided and Remote of 2008. Sensing Prominent institutions and Gottschalk 2013) The development them with an invaluable councils set up include the South Af- of Cubesats accompanies some of the rica National Space Agency (SANSA) achievements by African countries opportunity to launch and the Space Affairs Council of South with emerging space capabilities Africa (SACSA) (Gottschalk 2010, in small satellites