ABD AL-RAHMAN JAMI: “NAQSHBANDI SUFI, PERSIAN POET A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for The Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University By Farah Fatima Golparvaran Shadchehr, M.A. The Ohio State University 2008 Approved by Professor Stephen Dale, Advisor Professor Dick Davis Professor Joseph Zeidan ____________________ Advisor Graduate Program in History Copyright by Farah Shadchehr 2008 ABSTRACT The era of the Timurids, the dynasty that ruled Transoxiana, Iran, and Afghanistan from 1370 to 1506 had a profound cultural and artistic impact on the history of Central Asia, the Ottoman Empire, and Mughal India in the early modern era. While Timurid fine art such as miniature painting has been extensively studied, the literary production of the era has not been fully explored. Abd al-Rahman Jami (817/1414- 898/1492), the most renowned poet of the Timurids, is among those Timurid poets who have not been methodically studied in Iran and the West. Although, Jami was recognized by his contemporaries as a major authority in several disciplines, such as science, philosophy, astronomy, music, art, and most important of all poetry, he has yet not been entirely acknowledged in the post Timurid era. This dissertation highlights the significant contribution of Jami, the great poet and Sufi thinker of the fifteenth century, who is regarded as the last great classical poet of Persian literature. It discusses his influence on Persian literature, his central role in the Naqshbandi Order, and his input in clarifying Ibn Arabi's thought. Jami spent most of his life in Herat, the main center for artistic ability and aptitude in the fifteenth century; the city where Jami grew up, studied, flourished and produced a variety of prose and poetry. Religion during the Timurid era obviously left a profound mark on Jami, especially ii through the Naqshbandis who formed the most influential Sufi order of the realm in the fifteenth century. Living in a vortex of political, cultural, and social settings, Jami became the poet laureate of the era. In his historical work, Habib al-Siyar, Khwandamir, the celebrated historian of the Timurids, writes the name of 211 poets and men of learning of the era, one of whom was Jami. The sheer number of poets and writers was the result of the patronage of Timur's offspring, who were semi-independent rulers of different parts of the vast territory that Timur conquered. The competition among these minor courts created an appropriate condition for artisans and learned ones to produce quality works. Unlike most of his contemporaries, Jami was not attached to the court or to the house of any noble, and he never reached out to anyone to receive monetary rewards. Yet he was generously paid for his works, which were professionally bound and copied by some of the best calligraphers of Herat, thanks to funding provided by his close friend and follower, Ali- shir Nava'i who would send out Jami’s works to rulers, nobles, and dignitaries. Jami was a highly respected and renowned figure in the Timurid dynasty, because besides his status as the poet laureate of the era and because he was affiliated with the Naqshbandi Sufi tariqa, the most prominent order in the region at the time. The sheikh (leader) of the order, Khwaja Ahrar (d.1490), was enormously powerful and influential in Central Asia and Transoxiana. Jami acted as the caliph (representative) of Khwaja Ahrar in Herat. He lived at a time when the social condition of the population in the Timurid domain was not at its best, due to high taxes and oppression by the dynasty. Jami was iii able to reduce people's suffering through his position at the court and as the poet and Sufi of the Naqshbandis in the city. From this study the reader should emerge with a deeper understanding of Jami’s poetry and how it reflects the world in which it was written. iv DEDICATION Dedicated to my beloved family Ali, Sara, Sandra, and Ali John, whose support and encouragement made this project enjoyable. I am truly grateful for your love, endurance, and pride on me. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to convey my most sincere gratitude to Stephen Dale, my advisor and mentor, from whose guidance and support I benefited a great deal. I am especially grateful for his enthusiasm and encouragement for my topic. In addition, I am thankful to Dick Davis, who bestowed on me his support and guidance through my graduate program, and for his friendship. I also would like to offer my appreciation to Joseph Zeidan for years of unconditional support and encouragement for me. I am indebted to Jane Hathaway for her intellectual insight, criticism, and guidance. I am thankful to Michael Zewttler my Arabic professor, whose love and passion for Arabic literature made me to appreciate the language. I thank Amy Shuman for ever ready help and support. Special thanks for Dona Straley, without whose help I could not access some of the crucial sources. I am grateful to the Department of Near Eastern Cultures and Languages for funding me through graduate program. Special thanks to Staford Nobles for years of guidance. I also am thankful to the Ohio State University Middle East Studies Center, mainly the director, Alam Payind and Department of History. vi I also offer my thanks to Lisa Balabanlilar for her friendship and moral support. A special thanks to Joby Abernatathy for being so understanding and helpful. I am grateful to Xulkar my Uzbek teacher, Febe Armanios for her encouragement, and Faye Dsilva for her editorial work. I am grateful to Mr. Irani, the manager of Mirath-i Maktub in Iran for obtaining and coping the rare books for me. Also I offer my thanks to Mr. Ashrafi, the librarian in the National Library in Tehran. Most of all, I am thankful to my husband, Ali, for his patience and understanding, being so enthusiastic about my research, and sharing our life with Jami. I am most grateful to my beloved children: Sara, Sandra, and Ali John for years of support and encouragement through my academic years. vii VITA 1991 …………………………B.A. in Business Economics, Ohio University 2001…………………………M.A. in Near Easter Languages and Cultures, the Ohio State University 1997-2005………………….. Teaching Assistance in the Dept. of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures in Persian language, The Ohio State University 2007-2008…………………. Foreign Languages &Area Studies Fellowship (Arabic) 2003 Summer……………… Foreign Language &Area Studies Fellowship (Arabic) 2002-2003…………………. Foreign Language& Area Studies Fellowship (Arabic) 2002 Summer……………… Foreign Language &Area Studies Fellowship (Arabic) 2002 Summer……………… American Institute of Maghrab Studies (Arabic) PUBLICATION “Pahlavan Mahmud (1249-1326), published in Arts & Letters, fall 2006. “Pouriay-i Vali: A Case Study of the Thirteenth Century Wrestler Poet”, submitted for publication to Mirath-i Maktub, spring 2008. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field History Area of Emphasis Iran and Central Asia Minor Fields Islamic Studies and Persian Literature viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………ii Dedication……………………………………………………………………………..….v Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………..vi Vita……………………………………………………………………………………...viii Chapters: 1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………..1 Primary Sources………………………………………………………….4 2. Biography of Jami............................................................................................... 8 Jami’s Characteristic................................................................................15 Jami’s Love of Poetry..............................................................................17 Jami’s Final Year.....................................................................................18 3. The Timurid History…………………………………………………………..21 Timur’s Successors……………………………………………………..22 Shahrukh’s Era………………………………………………………….24 The Time after Shahrukh……………………………………………….28 Timurid Patronage of Arts……………………………………….……..30 4. Religion during the Timurid Dynasty………………………………………..33 Religion under Shahrukh……………………………………………….37 Religion under Ulugh Beg ……………………………………………..39 The Origin of the Naqshbandi Order…………………………………...41 ix The Role of Khwajagan………………………………………...………45 Jami’s Interest in the Order……………………………………………..47 The Role of Religious Leaders after Shahrukh…………………………48 Time after Abu Sa’id……………………………………………………51 5. Jami in Political, Social, and Religious Setting……………………………....54 Political: Jami’s Influence on the Court………………………………...57 Jami: the Social Critic…………………………………………………..62 Jami’s Critiques of Others………………………………………………66 Jami’s Preference for Seclusion…………………………………………69 6. The Naqshbandi Connection………………………………………………….72 Jami’s Relationship with Khwaja Ahrar………………………………..75 Jami’s Contribution to the Naqshbandi Order………………………….77 The Impact of Ibn ‘Arabi’s Teachings on Jami………………………...86 7. Jami’s Poetical Influences ……………………………………………………89 Critique of Jami's Verses……………………………………………….98 An Evaluation of Jami’s Critics……………………………………….103 8. Jami and Persian Literature in the Fifteenth Century……………….……107 State of Poetry during the Timurid Era………………………………..110 Decline of the Quality of the Poetry of this Era……………………….111 Characteristic of Timurid Poetry………………………………………113 The Popular Poetry of the Era ………………………………………....115 Jami’s Poetry…………………………………………………………..117 Diwan-i Jami ………………………………………………………….119 Jami’s Model ………………………………………………………….122 Jami’s Qasidas ………………………………………………………...130 Other Genres in Jami’s Diwan ………………………………………...132 Mathnawi Haft Awrang …………………………………………….....134