View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Sussex Research Online A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details Male prostitution and the homoerotic sex-market in Early Modern England Dimitris Savvidis Submitted for the award of Doctor of Philosophy English Studies University of Sussex May 2011 (Word length: 97,500) University of Sussex Dimitris Savvidis Male prostitution and the homoerotic sex-market in Early Modern England Summary This thesis explores male prostitution in early modern culture and calls for a reconsideration of linguistic representations of sodomy and homoeroticism in literary and historical criticism. It argues that as a variant expression of homoeroticism, its examination unfolds significant ideological and cultural implications for established perceptions of male relations. As instructed by classical textuality and misogynistic stigmatization of prostitution, the boy prostitute becomes a relational category that eludes easy classification, emerging syntactically alongside the female whore in English culture. Adopting a social constructionist approach, this dissertation traces male prostitution’s ambivalent representational properties in various genres and discourses, namely poetry, plays, historical narratives, theatre historiography, defamation accounts, philosophical diatribes and lexicography. The diverse vocabulary employed to describe homoerotic relations and identities is closely scrutinised in order to expose the metaphoricity and ambiguity embedded in such terms as ‘Ganymede’, ‘ingle’, ‘mignon’ and ‘catamite’. An analysis of the terminology demonstrates the ways in which discursive systems of language, within specific historical and cultural contexts, have facilitated the concomitant textual emergence of the sodomite with the male prostitute. The Introduction establishes the theoretical framework through which male prostitution from the medieval period until the mid-twentieth century has been discussed in twentieth-century criticism. Chapter One assesses its textual appearance in early modern Italy, France and Spain, while it sets the parameters for its examination in seventeenth- century England. Chapter Two analyses the representation of the male prostitute in Donne’s, Marston’s and Middleton’s satires and Chapter Three examines the theatrical institution and the ways in which theatre historiography misdirects discussions on sodomy and prostitution. The penultimate chapter focuses on textual constructions of the male prostitute in educational contexts and the final chapter addresses possible interrelations between prostitution, servitude, favouritism and friendship as represented within lexicography, slanderous discourse and historical narratives on King James and Francis Bacon. Contents Acknowledgements Declaration Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Fiction and history: the quest for evidence .......................................................... 6 The male prostitute and twentieth-century research .......................................... 18 Identity, subculture and the ‘real’ male prostitute ............................................. 27 Research on medieval female prostitution and medieval sodomites ................. 34 John Rykener and the quest for the early modern male prostitute .................... 41 Chapter One: Male prostitution in Early Modern Europe ..................................... 50 Spain, the Muslim Other and sexual misalliances ............................................. 51 France and historical narratives ......................................................................... 55 Italy, male prostitution and legal records .......................................................... 60 England, court records, lexicography and slander ............................................. 68 Metaphor and effect ........................................................................................... 81 Chapter 2: Male prostitution in early modern English satire ................................. 84 Marston’s male prostitutes ................................................................................ 87 Middleton’s ‘hermaphrodite’ ........................................................................... 101 Donne’s ‘prostitute boy’ .................................................................................. 112 Chapter 3: The actor as a prostitute ........................................................................ 122 Theatre historiography and male prostitution .................................................. 122 ‘Markets of wantonesse’: theatres as brothels ................................................. 134 Boyhood and sexual servitude ......................................................................... 144 Chapter 4: Education and literary constructions of prostitution ......................... 153 ‘Houses of Prostitution’ ................................................................................... 153 The Italianate Englishmen ............................................................................... 161 Foreign Literary scandals ................................................................................ 168 Constructions of masculinity, effeminacy and learning .................................. 183 Social mobility, universities and the image of the whore ............................... 189 Chapter 5: Sexual favouritism, friendship and male prostitution ........................ 192 Favouritism versus friendship versus prostitution ........................................... 195 Minion/Mignon ................................................................................................ 199 ‘Like a courtizane’: whoredom as a metaphor ................................................ 207 Bacon and his bedfellows: friends, servants or prostitutes? ............................ 214 King James’ sexual favourites ......................................................................... 222 Gaveston, Sejanus and the mythologies of prostitution .................................. 234 Favouritism in the late seventeenth century .................................................... 239 Epilogue: subculture, the sex-market and male prostitution ................................ 245 Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 253 Acknowledgements First, I would like to thank my friends for their genuine support during the four years of my study. Pelagia Marketou, Louiza Avgita and Lydia Polyzopoulou have been immensely supportive, both intellectually and emotionally. Dionysis Maroulas, Petros Chountas, Georgia Marketou, Kallirroi Askaridou, Wayne Durant, Antonis Fakidis, Rhona O’Brian, Eleni Lappa, Christos Kavadas, Thanasis Tsouvalas, Vincent Quinn, Maria Ramou, Kostas Karras, Terry Quiddington, Christina Misdaniti, Vassilis Kokalas and Dimitra Topaloglou – and many others who were interested on this dissertation’s progress - have all contributed with their company, encouragement, patience and humour, throughout these years. Their friendship means a great deal to me. Secondly, I want to thank the staff of the University of Sussex’s Library for providing me without delay, articles I requested from the British Library and also the English Department for contributing financially towards the cost of these secondary sources. I would also like to thank my family Mairi Savvidou, Panagiotis Savvidis, Sofia and Stathis for their financial and emotional support and trust. Without them this project would have been impossible. For their constant encouragement, patience and attention I am greatly indebted to Professor Alan Sinfield and Doctor Margaret Healy, both of whom have been immensely helpful with their constructive and contributory comments. It means a lot to me that they were always present and accessible whenever I needed them. Finally, I want to thank my friend and first reader of this thesis, Jim Mills, for his genuine support and help for the last four years. His suggestions, interest and attention on this topic helped me move on and persist, during times that were difficult for me. Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis has not been and will not be, submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Signature: Dimitris Savvidis Date: May 2011 1 Introduction To initiate and attempt to establish a case for male same-sex prostitution in early modern English culture and literature is a strenuous task. Enthusiasts of the subject will have high expectations concerning the availability of evidence, which primarily means historical facts. Measuring literary sources constantly against historical determinants, especially when the latter are held in great esteem and appreciated for their credibility,