CONSERVATION IMPLICATIONS OF ILLEGAL BIRD TRADE AND DISEASE RISK IN PERU A Dissertation by ELIZABETH FRANCES DAUT Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, Donald J. Brightsmith Co-Chair of Committee, Markus J. Peterson Committee Members, Renata Ivanek-Miojevic Christian Brannstrom Head of Department, Roger Smith III May 2015 Major Subject: Veterinary Microbiology Copyright 2015 Elizabeth Frances Daut ABSTRACT Trade in wild-caught animals as pets is a global conservation and animal-welfare concern. Illegal and poorly-regulated legal wildlife trade can threaten biodiversity, spread infectious diseases, and result in considerable animal suffering and mortality. I used illegal wildlife trade in Peru, specifically native bird trade, as a case study to explore important aspects and consequences of the trade for domestic markets. With data collected from a five-year market survey and governmental seizure records, I applied a statistical modeling approach to investigate the influence of Peru’s legal export quota system on the country’s illegal domestic bird trade. I used an infectious-disease mathematical modeling approach to analyze how illegal harvest influenced disease dynamics in a wild parrot population. Finally, I used qualitative research methods to investigate the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and their members’ philosophical perspectives toward wildlife in combating illegal trade. I found that Peru had a thriving illegal trade in native birds (mostly parrots) for domestic consumers; 150 species were recorded in markets and/or seizures with over 35,250 individuals offered for sale (2007–2011). Peru’s current legal export quota system did not influence avian abundance in markets, but historic export trade did. Because authorities frequently release confiscated birds without health evaluation, infectious pathogens may be introduced into wild populations. I determined that the hypothetical release of white- winged parakeets infected with Newcastle disease would provoke a disease outbreak with considerable mortality in a susceptible population. Higher rates of illegal harvest dampened the magnitude of the outbreak, but the combined effects of high harvest and disease-induced mortality may threaten population survival. According to interviewees, Peru’s government was considered lax in combating illegal wildlife trade and as such, many NGOs supplemented the government’s efforts. The five NGOs most dedicated to decreasing illegal wildlife-pet trade in Peru had strong, dual philosophical perspectives that prioritized both wildlife populations and individual wild animals. In conclusion, there is considerable avian trafficking for Peru’s domestic consumers that (1) is ii independent of Peru’s export market, (2) provides a mechanism to introduce harmful infectious diseases into wild population, and (3) is combated most by dual-perspective NGOs. iii DEDICATION To Robin Andrews, my first mentor, who set me on this path. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my committee members, Drs. Donald J. Brightsmith, Markus J. Peterson, Renata Ivanek and Christian Brannstrom for their guidance and support throughout my graduate training. I am particularly grateful for Dr. Peterson’s patience and encouragement and helping me become a productive researcher. For the two dissertation chapters that have not yet been published, I would like to acknowledge my co-authors; for Chapter II they are: D. J. Brightsmith, P. A. Mendoza, L. Puhakka and M. J. Peterson, while for Chapter III they are: G. Lohodny, M. J. Peterson and R. Ivanek. Citations for published versions of Chapters IV and V are provided on the first page of the corresponding chapter. I am indebted to Lee Schaeffer and Susan Knoerr for welcoming me into their home during my field research in Peru. I thank all of the wonderful people that spent time with me discussing wildlife trade and the pet bird market in Peru, particularly those interviewees from non-governmental and governmental organizations that formed the foundation of my dissertation. I am very appreciative of the mathematical modeling assistance that Glenn Lohodny provided and for my collaboration with Patricia Mendoza and the animal market survey. Numerous individuals provided valuable guidance and/or comments on manuscript drafts including M. J. Liles, J. D. Boyd, and my sister V. L. Daut. I am also thankful for the support of my family, friends, colleagues and the amazing department staff. I am grateful for the financial and academic support provided by Applied Biodiversity Science NSF-IGERT program, the Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, the Schubot Exotic Bird Health Center at Texas A&M University, and the Philanthropic Educational Organization. v NOMENCLATURE CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora DFE Disease-free equilibrium IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ND Newcastle disease NGO Non-governmental organization ODE Ordinary differential equation VIF Variance inflation factor WCS Wildlife Conservation Society vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................ii DEDICATION .................................................................................................................. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... v NOMENCLATURE .......................................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................vii LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ x LIST OF TABLES ...........................................................................................................xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW ................................... 1 Literature review ............................................................................................................ 1 Illegal wildlife trade ................................................................................................... 1 Trade in wild-caught birds ......................................................................................... 3 Legal and illegal wildlife trade ................................................................................... 5 Disease and wildlife trade ........................................................................................ 10 Non-governmental organizations ............................................................................. 13 Research objectives and dissertation outline ................................................................ 15 Study area ..................................................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER II ILLEGAL DOMESTIC BIRD TRADE AND THE ROLE OF EXPORT QUOTAS IN PERU ......................................................................................... 17 Synopsis ....................................................................................................................... 17 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 18 Methods ........................................................................................................................ 20 Export quota system and wildlife commercialization legislation ............................ 20 Market survey ........................................................................................................... 21 Quota and seizure data ............................................................................................. 23 Biological and trade variables .................................................................................. 23 Analyses ................................................................................................................... 25 Results .......................................................................................................................... 26 Diversity and numbers in markets and seizures ....................................................... 26 vii Export quotas ............................................................................................................ 27 Market and seizure abundance ................................................................................. 30 Conservation ............................................................................................................. 33 Ornamental, regional, and exotic birds .................................................................... 33 Discussion .................................................................................................................... 35 CHAPTER III INTERACTING EFFECTS OF NEWCASTLE DISEASE TRANSMISSION AND ILLEGAL TRADE ON A WILD POPULATION OF WHITE-WINGED PARAKEETS IN PERU: A MODELING APPROACH ................. 41 Synopsis ....................................................................................................................... 41 Introduction .................................................................................................................