Project PD114!90 (F) Mangrove Ecosystems of Latin America and the Caribbean: a Summary 1 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 Lacerda, L.D. ; Conde, J.E. ; Alarcon, c. ; Alvarez-León, R. ; Bacon, P.R. ; D'Croz, L. ; Kjerfve, B. ; Polaina, J. & M. Vannucci9 1-Departamento de Geoquímica, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, 24020-007, RJ, Brazil. 2- Centro de Ecología, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, AP 21827, Caracas 1020A, Venezuela. 3- Centro de Investigaciones en Ecología y Zonas Áridas (CIEZA), Universidad Nadonal Experimental Francisco de Miranda, AP 7506, Coro, Falcón, Venezuela. 4- Promotora de Fomento Cultural de Costa Atlántica (PRODECOSTA), AA­ 1820, Cartagena, (Bol.) Colombia. 5- Department of Zoology, University of West Indies, 51. Augustine, Port of Spain, Trinidad & Tobago. 6- Departamento de Biología Acuática, Universidad de Panamá and Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2074, Balboa, República de Panamá. 7- Marine Science Program, University of South Carolina, 29208, Columbia, SC, USA. 8- Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigadon y Enseñanza, Tur­ rialba, Costa Rica. 9- Intemational Sodety for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME), Okinawa, Japan. 1. Mangroves and Man in Pre-Columbian of soil by slash-and-burn farmers (Veloz Maggiolo & and Colonial America Pantel, 1976, cited in Sanoja, 1992). In various countries of the American continent, The nomadic human groups frequently formed there is strong archeological evidence of mangrove semi-permanent settlements along the coast, close to utilization by Pre-Columbian and even Pre-historical lagoons and bays, where an abundant and easy to human groups. Pre-Columbian inhabitants tradition­ collect protein-rich diet was provided by molluscs ally used mangroves for many purposes, including (Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1965). In these areas, they left wood and energy production. The use of mangroves large amounts of shells and organic and "cultural" varied from site to site, depending on the particular debris, called "conchales" or "concheros" ip Spanish characteristics of the population who started man­ speaking countries and "sambaquis" in Brazil. These grove utilization during the transition period from remains provide important information on the char­ nomad to fixed habits, between 9,000 to 3,000 years acteristics of these populations including food habits BP; however, several common features are evident and utilization of natural resources (Perdomo-Rojas, (Alvarez-León, 1993). 1978; Prahl el al., 1990). In tropical coastal areas, the expansion of man­ Castaño-Uribe (1989) suggests that in Colombia grove forests probably triggered, 6,000 years ago, the process of colonization by the human population important social changes among itinerant human was a continuous chronological sequence, with great groups, especially inducing an initial settling process implications for the cultural development of the en­ of gatherer, fisher, and hunter communities. In Vene­ tire continen1. An example of this was the finding in zuela 6,000 or 5,000 years ago, human populations mangroves and adjacent areas along the Atlantic possibly coming from the inner lands of Venezuela, coast of Colombia, of the most ancient ceramics of occupied the mouths of the rivers that descend from the American continent (c.a. 2,400 years BP) a discov­ the Paria Sierra, and other coastal areas, many of ery of pivotal cultural importance (Reichel­ them covered by mangroves (Sanoja, 1992),.in a pro­ Dolmatoff, 1985). Along the extensive mangrove cess similar to the one hypothesized by Widmer fringes of the Pacific and the Caribbean coasts of (1988) for the South coast of Florida, USA. Man­ northem South America, the development of human groves, as a resource, including wood, resins, fibers groups resulted in distinct patterns of cultural and dyes, andalso proteins of animal origin, pro­ adaptation which can still be recognized today. Their vided a spectrum of resources for diverse types of technology was continuously being changed and op­ extraction and encouraged sorne incipient forms of timized for the exploitation of these resource-rich, cultivation of native edible plants. Extraction of man­ non-seasonal wetlands, to provide the necessary in­ grove oysters by the indigenous populations of the frastructure for the establishment of large human coastal areas could have induced a kind of semino­ groups, whose economy was based on the collection mad exploitation, which can be compared to the use of molluscs and on fisheries. The experience 1 - Latin America and Caribbean diversifíed and expanded through the continent disappeared almost totally on some of the islands of (Castaño-Uribe, 1989). the archipelago (Antczak & Antczak, 1987). Almost fíve centuries later, mangrove products still occupy a In Panamá there is evidence of human settle­ very important rank in the Venezuelan indian econo­ ments in mangrove areas about 5,000 years BP; these my. In the Delta Amacuro State, indian populations people made tools out of mangrove wood (D'Croz, use mangrove wood in the construction of poles and 1993). The importance of fishing of euryhaline spe­ pilings for houses and jetties (Flores, 1977). cies from mangrove-bordered estuaries and channels for pre-Columbian human settlements located in the Archeological evidences suggest that mangroves central coast of Panamá at that time has also been were used intensively by the Arawak indians in noted (Cook & Ranere, 1992). Utilizing fences, har­ Puerto Rico (Carrera, 1975). Many of the "concheros" poons, fishhooks and other primitive tools, many of are found in the coastal zone of this island (Carrera, them made of mangrove wood, people from these 1975). Among the molluscs consumed by the indians settlements caught est.uarine and coastal species be­ are two mangrove species commonly found on the longing to the Carangidae, Batrachoididae, Ariidae, red mangrove: Crassostrea rhizophorae and Isognomon and Clupeidae. alatus (Carrera, 1975). In Brazil the pre-Columbian record extends from In Latin America, mangroves were the subject of 3,500 to 2,000 years BP, when deposits of shells and curiosity since the discovery. Spanish colonizers fish bones from mangrove species were accumulated were much attracted by mangroves, as can be in­ in mounds by nomad populations of fisherman and ferred from the words of the historian Gonzalo Fer­ collectors (Beltráo, 1976). nandez de Oviedo y Valdés, who wrote that the mangrove is " ... a tree of the best that in these places In Peru, the Tumpis Culture, which settled in the exists, and it is common in these islands ... rare and Tumbes region, had an important role in Pre­ admirable trees to sight, because of its forms it is not Columbian America. They formed a large coastal known another being similar". This author is alleged­ population dedicated to agriculture, físhing and ly the fírst to mention, at the beginning of the XVI commerce, and are considered the best navigators of century, American mangroves (Rodríguez, 1984; the Peruvian coast. They developed to a high degree Schaeffer-Novelli & Cintrón, 1990. ). He added an in_o the art of carving several mangrove bivalves, includ­ ventory of mangrove uses. In 1595, Sir Walter Ra­ ing Spondius sp., Ostraea sp., and Anadara grandis. To leigh, in relation to sorne trees surrounding the the Spondius shell, known to the Andean people as channels at the mouth of the Orinoco Delta, men­ "Mullu", they attributed magical powers and after tions that these trees are capable of living in salty carving zoomorph or phytomorph fígures they were water. Tejera (1977) has catalogued other historical offered during certain religious rituals (Echevartía & references on mangroves in the Americanist Sarabia, 1993). literature. The migration of human populations to the During the colonization, the indian opposition coastal areas is also testified, in Venezuela, by the lead to the virtual extinction of native populations presence of archaeological preceramic places of shel­ along the coasts of the entire continent. By the time lfish pickers and fishers in the Tucacas area, Falcón of the European conquest, mangroves represented State, where nowadays there is a large extension of such a nuisance to troops and horses that Cristobal mangroves (Cruxent and Rouse, 1958). In the south­ de Molina, for example, described the mangroves in ero Pacific coast of Costa Rica huge "concheros", tes­ 1552 in Peru as the "most difficult land of these king­ tify to the early settlements of indigenous doms". However, this did not hamper the discovery communities. The indians of Puerto Rico (probably of the quality of mangrove timber for construction, the Arawaks) occasionally ingested the red man­ and the exploitation was immediately started, most­ grove seedlings; this is a custom actually observed ly for poles and boat construction, and later for tan­ among the fishermen, who sustain that it helps them nin. From the 16th century on mangrove timber was to quench their thirst during their prolonged físhing exported from Colombia to Peru and reached an joumeys (Carrera, 1975). In the Los Roques Archi­ amount of 6,000 poles a year in the 17th century. In pelago, 100 km north of the Venezuelan coast, in­ 1677 for instance, thousands of mangrove poles were dians used mangroves intensively. As a consequence exported to Cuba from the Pacific coast Colombia of this exploitation, some of these mangroves (Prahl et al., 1990) Commerce of bark was also very 2 Project PD114/90 (F) intense. Ecuador for example exported to neighbor­ coast of Venezuela, using it as firewood for the fur­ ing countries nearIy 600 tons of bark per year from naces of steamships; as a residual product, tannins 1879 to 1906 (Bodero, 1993). were extracted from the crust (Amend, 1992). During the colonial period the commerce of Resources derived from mangroves have been mangrove products was so important that the colo­ utilized from pre-colombian times to the presento nial authorities produced specific legislation to pro­ Presently, sorne forest products from mangroves are tect and manage the use of this resource. In 1760, the widely utilized in rural constructions, also as sticks King of Portugal and Brazil, D.