Woomera’s Women: Rolls and Roles of Film Camera operators on the Anglo-Australian rocket range 1947-1970 Stella M. Barber Bachelor of Arts (Hons), University of Melbourne; Master of Arts, Monash University Graduate Diploma in Information Management (Archives and Records), Melbourne This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Murdoch University College of Arts, Business, Law & Social Sciences February 2020 Declaration I declare that: a. The thesis is my own account of my research, except where other sources are fully acknowledged by referencing or endnotes. b. The thesis contains as its main content work which has not been previously submitted for a degree at any tertiary education institution. c. The thesis has been proof-read by a professional editor and complies with the standards set out by the Murdoch Graduate Research Office. d. The thesis includes work that has been approved by the Murdoch University Human Research Ethics Committee (Approval No. 2017/048) and conducted in accordance with University ethics and fieldwork guidelines. Stella M. Barber February 2020 iii Abstract With the aftermath of World War II and the onset of the Cold War, Australia hosted with the UK one of the few global centres dedicated to the research, development and testing of rockets, jets and other long-range weapons, including Britain’s atomic warheads. By the mid 1950s a new purpose-built town had been constructed in the Australian desert, named “Woomera”, with a population of 7,000 at its peak. No expense was spared in establishing the testing grounds, laboratories and infrastructure – which included a security cleared film laboratory and production facilities at Salisbury near Adelaide – to support the Anglo-Australian Joint Project’s research and experimentation. This dissertation examines pioneering work undertaken by women at Woomera and Salisbury within the context of Australia’s broader social history. Women’s roles at Woomera were initially expected to be traditional – supportive wives and mothers. My research features the women who undertook new roles operating the sophisticated kinetheodolites and Vinten cameras that filmed and tracked the rocket firings, and the women referred to as “computers” who assisted in the pre- and post-production process, including data evaluation. Previous studies of Woomera (e.g., Morton, 1989, Southall 1962) exclude any detailed mention of this industrial phenomenon – women as camera operators and data analysts/computers. My dissertation addresses this significant gap in the literature as the first systematic oral history of these secret Cold War undertakings. The gendered aspects, political economy and unique cohort of this research radically challenges the normative assumptions concerning Australian women and workplaces during what is commonly perceived of as a conservative era. Recent scholarship (e.g., Shetterly 2016) in the United States and the United Kingdom has highlighted work of female mathematicians during World War II and the space race. Given the age of these trailblazing women, it is timely that due attention be given to Australia’s “hidden figures”. v This thesis is dedicated to Laurie East, who was the original source of inspiration for my research, and also to all those who worked on the cameras and have given generously of their time in informing my work. vii Table of Contents Declaration ................................................................................................................. iii Abstract ....................................................................................................................... v Dedication ................................................................................................................. vii Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... ix List of Tables ............................................................................................................. xv List of Figures ........................................................................................................... xv Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... xvii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. xix Chapter One Introduction: Useful and Timely 1 1.1 Woomera: The research setting..................................................................... 2 1.2 Research focus .............................................................................................. 3 1.3 Methodology ................................................................................................. 4 1.4 Australian Research Council-funded Discovery Project: “Useful” film ...... 5 1.5 Personal suitability for the research focus .................................................... 5 1.6 The Anglo-Australian Joint Project .............................................................. 6 1.7 The testing program and the creation of data film ........................................ 7 1.8 Research questions ........................................................................................ 9 1.9 Research boundaries ................................................................................... 10 1.10 Value of the research: Contribution to knowledge ..................................... 10 1.11 Limitations of the research .......................................................................... 12 1.12 Main findings .............................................................................................. 13 1.13 Dissertation structure .................................................................................. 13 Chapter Two Methodology 15 2.1 Research design choices.............................................................................. 16 2.2 Major research question and research sub-questions .................................. 17 2.3 Qualitative and case study research: A common-sense pragmatic approach ..................................................................................... 17 2.3.1 Laurine Hall: Primary case study ................................................... 18 2.4 Case study approach ................................................................................... 19 2.4.1 Participant sample .......................................................................... 21 2.5 Oral history: A methodological approach using structured and unstructured interviews ............................................................................... 22 2.5.1 Oral histories process ..................................................................... 25 2.5.2 Locating and travelling to meet the subjects of the minor case studies..................................................................................... 28 ix Table of Contents 2.5.3 Interviewing Laurine East (née Hall): Primary case study ............ 29 2.5.4 Oral history: Ethics respect and understanding ............................. 32 2.5.5 Recording the interviews ............................................................... 36 2.5.6 Data analysis and interpretation ..................................................... 38 2.5.7 Benefits of the oral history interviews for the participants ............ 39 2.6 Film and other research media .................................................................... 40 2.6.1 Archival film research in Australia ................................................ 40 2.6.2 Archival research in the United Kingdom ..................................... 45 2.6.3 National Library of Australia manuscripts .................................... 48 2.6.4 Pragmatism and good fortune ........................................................ 48 2.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 49 Chapter Three Literature Review 51 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 52 3.2 The Cold War, its impact on Australian defence science, and the planning of a testing range at Woomera ........................................................................... 53 3.3 Woomera and the joint project .................................................................... 59 3.4 The films ..................................................................................................... 64 3.4.1 The Australian Centre for the Moving Image ................................ 65 3.4.2 The National Archives of Australia ............................................... 69 3.5 Specialist camera work and women operating cameras.............................. 71 3.6 Women working at Woomera ..................................................................... 76 3.6.1 Women’s pay ................................................................................. 78 3.6.2 Australian “Computers” ................................................................. 79 3.6.3 Senior female roles and men as bosses .......................................... 81 3.6.4 Women's experience at Woomera .................................................. 82 3.6.5 Relationships, marriage and children ............................................. 85 3.7 Security and secrecy on the range ............................................................... 86 3.8 Third World War fears and communism concerns ....................................