^.2 Eu ro pe meets U.S. ;N0928-1371 in Crime and Policy European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research ARCHIEF EXEMPLAAR Justitie NIET MEENEMEN. ! ! ! ! [.2 Europe meets U.S. ;N0928-1371 in Crime and Policy European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research Research and Kugler Documentation Centre Publications Amsterdam/ New York 1996 Aims and scope prof. dr. A. Siemaszko, Poland The European Journal on Criminal Policy Institute of Justice and Research is a platform for discussion prof. dr. C.D. Spinellis, Greece and information exchange on the crime University of Athens problem in Europe. Every issue concentrates dr. D.W. Steenhuis, The Netherlands on one central topic in the criminal field, Public Prosecutor's Office incorporating different angles and perspec- dr. P.-O. Wikstróm, Sweden tives. The editorial policy is on an invitational Swedish National Police College basis. The journal is at the same time policy- based and scientific, it is both informative Editorial committee and plural in its approach. The journal is of prof dr. J. Junger-Tas interest to researchers, policymakers and RDC, editor-in-chief other parties that are involved in the crime dr. J.C.J. Boutellier problem in Europe. RDC, managing editor The Eur. Journ. Crim. Pol. Res. (preferred prof dr. H.G. van de Bunt abbreviation) is published by Kugler Publica- RDC / Free University of Amsterdam tions in cooperation with the Research and prof. dr. G.J.N. Bruinsma Documentation Centre of the Dutch Ministry University of Twente of Justice. The RDC is, independently from prof. dr. M. Killias the Ministry, responsible for the contents of University of Lausanne the journal. Each volume wilt contain four dr. M.M. Kommer issues of about 130 pages. RDC prof. dr. L. Walgrave Advisory board University of Leuven prof. dr. H.-J. Albrecht, Germany Dresden University of Technology Editorial address prof. dr. H.-J. Bartsch, Germany Ministry of Justice, RDC, mrs. K.E. Slabbers Free University of Berlin / Council of Europe European Journal on Criminal Policy prof. dr. A.E. Bottoms, Great Britain and Research, P.O. Box 20301, University of Cambridge 2500 EH The Hague, The Netherlands prof. dr. N.E. Courakis, Greece Tel.: (31 70) 3706552; Fax: (31 70) 3707948 University of Athens prof. dr. J.J.M. van Dijk, The Netherlands Subscriptions Ministry of Justice / University of Leiden Subscription price per volume: DFL 180 / dr. C. Faugeron, France US $ 112.50 (postage included) Grass Kugler Publications, P.O. Box 11188 prof. K. Gónczó/, Hungary 1001 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands, EStvás University Fax: (31 20) 6380524 dr. M. Joutsen, Finland For USA and Canada: Heuni Kugler Publications, c/o Demos Vermande, prof. dr. H.-J. Kerner, Germany Order Department, 386 Park Avenue South, University of TObingen Suite 201, New York, NY 10016, USA prof. dr. M. Levi, Great Britain Fax: (212) 683 0118 University of Wales dr. R. Lévy, France Single issues Cesdip, CNRS Price per issue DFL 55 / US $ 35.00 P. Mayhew, Great Britain For addresses, see above Home Office prof. dr. B. De Ruyver, Belgium Production University of Ghent Marianne Sampiemon prof. dr. E.U. Savona, ltaly Huub Simons (coordination copy-editing) University of Trento Hans Meiboom (design) Contents Editorial 5 How exceptional is the United States? Crime trends in Europe and the US 7 Ineke Haen Marshall The effects of American drug policy on black Americans, 1980-1996 36 Michael Tonry Gangs in the United States and Europe 63 Malcolm W. Klein Family socialization and delinquency in the United States and Switzerland 81 Alexander T. Vazsonyi The new world order of criminal justice; reflections on clientelism 101 Alan A. Block Crisis in American criminal policy? Questions and comments 119 Christian Pfeiffer, EzzatA. Fattah, Michael R. Gottfredson, Matti foutsen, René Lévy, Wesley G. Skogan Varia 140 International Police Training Conference, Birmingham, England, 31 August to 5 September, 1996 Crime institute profile 142 National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice Abstracts 148 Editorial 'Europe' as an entity does not exist. Europe can be characterized by referring to its diversity in language, culture and economic development. However, the US does not exist as an entity either. The United States can also be characterized by its diverse languages, cultures and economic development. The US does have one federal government, while Europe is (still) a continent of nation-states, slowly growing into one economic market and communautarian politics. Never- theless, an edition of the journal dedicated to the comparison of crime and criminal justice on both sides of the Atlantic is, in some ways a 'tricky business'. How does one compare these two continente of tremendous pluralism? In this issue of the European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research an attempt at such a comparison is made. From a European perspective there are at least two reasons to do so. In the first place there is a common belief that everything happening in the United States now will happen some years later in Europe. Secondly American crime and justice problems seem - seen through European eyes - to have grown into mythological proportions. The American model fascinates and frightens at the same time. From an American perspective, on the other hand, there seems to be a growing interest in the ways European countries deal with their crime problems. This issue at least reflects the mutual interest in criminal developments and approaches undertaken in criminal justice and research. The editors of this issue happily present a varied collection of articles byAmerican and European experts. The issue begins with an article by Ineke Haen Marshall, who com- pares crime trends in Europe and the United States. The major trends in US criminality are described, followed by a discussion of recent trends in crimi- nality on both sides of the Atlantic. The article concludes that the focus on American exceptionalism with regard to gun-related violent crime overshadows major convergences and similarities in criminality shared by both nations. The second article deals with drug policy. The American war on drugs is, in some European countries, seen as a bad example of criminal justice policy. This war was formally declared in 1988, eight years after all indicators of drug use began to decline sharply. The federal drug control strategy required that 70 percent of federal funds be expended on supply-side tactics (street-level law enforcement, harsher penalties, border controls, interdiction, source-country programmes) and only 30 percent be expended on treatment, education, and prevention. The war has in its own terms failed, according to the author Michael Tonry. Drugs availability remained the same and prices feil. Incarcera- European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research vol. 4-2 6 tion of drug offenders has been the principal cause of the recent record in- crease in imprisonment rates and is the principal reason why one in three young black men in 1995 was under the control of the justice system. The third article deals with gangs in the United States and Europe. Malcolm W. Klein describes Street gangs as they were found to exist in Europe in 1992. Included are examples in Stockholm, Zurich, Stuttgart, Frankfurt, Berlin, London, Manchester, Brussels, and a number of Volga cities in Russia. It then describes new research on gang structures in the US which yielded five some- what distinct structural scenarios. This new typology is applied to the 1992 description of European gangs. New information on European gangs through 1995 is then presented with special attention paid to Sweden, England, Holland, and Germany. If anything, it seems that the street gang situation may be worsening in Europe, although a great deal of relevant information is missing. The fourth article compares the United States and Switzerland with respect to family socialization and delinquency. Alexander T. Vazsonyi compared self- reported rates and aetiological factors of juvenile delinquency in a Swiss (N= 970) and an American (N=232) sample of adolescents. While official statistics generally indicate sizeable differences in rates of juvenile delinquency, few studies have examined cross-nationally self-reported juvenile delinquency. Consistent with self-control theory (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990), the report- ed aetiological factors include self-control as well as family process variables (e.g., parental monitoring). Findings indicate that American youth were more delinquent than Swiss youth. Also, aetiological factors consistent with self control theory account for these cross-national differences. The discussion focuses on potential links between family socialization and delinquency. In the next article Alan Block describes developments in organized crime. He is especially interested in the links between states and organized crime groups. In his opinion clientelism can be seen as the keyword in understanding the rela- tion between powerful states and satellite states, and the way this relationship influences organized crime. In this respect he does not find any disparity be- tween different economic systems in American states and European states. The issue closes with a letter written by the German criminologist Christian Pfeiffer to Attorney General Janet Reno. The letter dates from 1994 and can be seen as a cri de coeur on American criminal policy. Incarceration rates and the 'three strikes and you're out' policy frightened the author. The editorial com- mittee decided to publish the letter, but only after asking some colleagues to comment on the letter. The publication of letter and comments (by Fattah, Gottfredson, Joutsen, Lévy and Skogan) is intended to trigger further discussion. Readers are asked to respond to this debate. The Crime institute profile - because of the subject of this issue - features the US Institute of Justice. How exceptional is the United States? Crime trends in Europe and the US Ineke Haen Marshall' Tourists travelling to the US are told not to talk to strangers for fear of being robbed or killed.