Spiritual Exercises in Epictetus: Difficult but Justified by Michael Tremblay A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Philosophy Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2016, Michael Tremblay Abstract: The aim of this thesis is to provide a new interpretation about the role played by spiritual exercises in Epictetus’ program of moral therapy, in response to Brennan (2003) who holds that they may potentially conflict with Epictetus’ intellectualism. I argue that spiritual exercises are intended to cause us to assimilate theory by causing one to form specific beliefs that are in accordance with theory. Understood this way, any sort of tension seems to resolve itself. I rely upon the work that Braicovich (2012) has done on this question, and go further, ultimately demonstrating that all three of Epictetus’ spiritual exercises can be explained coherently when understood as aiding in the assimilation of theory. I conclude by proposing that Epictetus thought of Stoics like athletes in training for whom spiritual exercises are essential to staying fit and ready to perform. ii Acknowledgements: It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Annie Larivée, whose unique approach to philosophy, passion for teaching, and demands for excellence have both facilitated this thesis and inspired me to be a better academic and philosopher. I would like to thank my parents, Peter Tremblay and Sandy Wooley, as well as my sister, Alison Tremblay, for their constant support and enthusiasm when it comes to the writing of this thesis. It is only because of them that I have the confidence and opportunity to pursue my passion for philosophy. I would like to also thank the following people who have contributed to the process of writing this thesis: My Grandmother Peg Wooley, for her feedback on my rough drafts and our discussions about the merit of Stoicism; Patricia Pajunen for always willing to debate the specifics of Stoic theory; Timmy Grainger and Jonathan Reardon for their insightful comments about the style and substance of my drafts; Melanie White for her impeccable help with editing and her constant support for all of my endeavors; the members of class PHIL4004/5600, for allowing me to present an early version of this thesis, and for providing excellent feedback. iii Table of Contents: Abstract: ............................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements: ......................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents: ............................................................................................................ iv Preface: ............................................................................................................................. vi 1 Chapter: Epictetus’ Intellectualism and Psychology ............................................... 1 1.1 Introduction to Intellectualism........................................................................................ 3 1.2 Beliefs ........................................................................................................................... 10 1.3 Belief Formation ........................................................................................................... 16 1.4 Belief Modification ...................................................................................................... 20 2 Chapter: Spiritual Exercises and Intellectualism .................................................. 26 2.1 Possible Conflicts with Intellectualism ........................................................................ 26 2.2 The Irrelevance of Spiritual Exercises .......................................................................... 37 2.3 Sellers and Spiritual Exercises ..................................................................................... 41 3 Chapter: Spiritual Exercises Reimagined .............................................................. 48 3.1 Spiritual Exercises and Specific Beliefs ....................................................................... 48 3.2 Critical Assent: ............................................................................................................. 56 3.3 Repetition Exercise ....................................................................................................... 60 4 Chapter: Habituation Exercise and Questioning Exercise ................................... 70 4.1 Habituation Exercise Described ................................................................................... 70 4.2 Habituation and Specific Beliefs .................................................................................. 75 4.3 Questioning Exercise .................................................................................................... 84 4.4 Questioning Exercise and Specific Beliefs ................................................................... 90 5 Chapter: The Athlete Analogy ................................................................................. 95 iv 5.1 Specific Beliefs and Muscle ......................................................................................... 95 5.2 Impressions as Wrestling Opponents ......................................................................... 103 5.3 The Glory of Victory .................................................................................................. 107 5.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 111 Bibliography: ................................................................................................................. 112 v Preface: The aim of this thesis is to provide insight into the exact role and nature that spiritual exercises have in the philosophy of Epictetus. More specifically, it is a direct response to the paper “Stoic Moral Psychology”, within which Tad Brennan argues that Epictetus’ reliance upon repetition to modify belief is inconsistent or incompatible with the unified reasoning soul he endorses as a Stoic. To resolve this problem, I will provide an interpretation of spiritual exercises within Epictetus which does not conflict with his conception of the self as wholly rational. Brennan’s concern is that the exercises in Epictetus seem to be, at least prima facie, a non-cognitive modification strategy which is essential or necessary for the formation of correct beliefs (Moral Psychology, 2003, 278). Brennan also argues that “it is a plausible rule of thumb that what can only be altered by non-rational means is a non- rational state” (Moral Psychology, 279). Brennan’s argument is a problem because Epictetus’ reliance upon repetition would seem to force him to hold the view that beliefs are at least in part non-cognitive, which is not something a Stoic would endorse. However, Brennan is not steadfast in his view. By acknowledging that this conflict is founded from a prima facie viewpoint, and that his criticisms are plausible, but not certain, Brennan is inviting further dialogue and discussion of the issue. Other philosophers have proposed interpretations of spiritual exercises which do not conflict with intellectualism. I will look at Sellers’ (2007) and Cooper’s (2007) accounts but deem them to be insufficient. My aim is to construct an account that takes the best parts from Sellers (2007) while acknowledging the problems raised by Brennan (2003) and Cooper (2007). vi My thesis will be divided into five chapters: 1. Epictetus’ Intellectualism and Psychology 2. Spiritual Exercises and Intellectualism 3. Spiritual Exercises Reimagined 4. The Habituation Exercise and the Questioning Exercise 5. The Athlete Analogy In Chapter 1, I will outline Epictetus’ intellectualism and, using quotes from the primary text as well as secondary sources, identify what precisely this intellectualism commits him to, such as the impossibility of akrasia or weakness of will. In Chapter 2, I will focus on how spiritual exercises possibly relate to Epictetus’ intellectualism commitments. This first section will discuss Brennan’s (2003) concerns about the potential conflict between these exercises and a wholly rational conception of the mind, while the next two sections will examine Cooper’s (2007) and Sellers’ (2007) interpretations of spiritual exercises respectively. In Chapter 3, I will put forward my own original account of the purpose or role of spiritual exercises within Epictetus. I will then examine a paper by Braicovich (2012) in which he discusses a specific exercise, the Repetition Exercise, in great detail. His account of this specific exercise fits perfectly with my interpretation of spiritual exercises in general and it will lay the foundation for examining the other two exercises. In Chapter 4, I will then look at the other two spiritual exercises present in Epictetus, which I will call the Habituation Exercise and the Questioning Exercise. I will explain how they are intended to contribute towards our moral progress, and demonstrate how they fit my interpretation of spiritual exercises. vii Finally, in Chapter 5, I will discuss the analogy Epictetus makes between a philosopher and an athlete. While Epictetus is not always explicit about what he believed, I hold that this analogy shows my interpretation of spiritual exercises