Identity and Religion in Roman North Africa: the apologetics of Tertullian by John Elmer P. Abad A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy Graduate Department of Classics University of Toronto @ copyright by John Elmer Abad (2018) John Elmer Abad Doctor of Philosophy Department of Classics University of Toronto 2018 Abstract This dissertation examines the strategies employed by Tertullian in the construction and articulation of Christian identity in the pluralistic Roman North African society. The focus will be the apologetic works of Tertullian, the Ad Martyras, the Ad Nationes and the Apologeticum written around 197 A.D. Popular biases against Christians, the Romanizing tendencies of local elites in North Africa, the marginalization of sub-elites, the influence of cultural and intellectual revolution known as the Second Sophistic Movement, and the political ideologies and propaganda of emperor Septimius Severus – all these influenced Tertullian’s attempt to construct and articulate a Christian identity capable of engaging the ever changing socio- political landscape of North African at the dawn of the third century A.D. I shall examine select areas in antiquity where identities were explored, contested and projected namely, socio- cultural, religious, and political. I have identified four spheres which I refer to as “sites” of identity construction, namely paideia, the individual, community and “religion”. Chapter One provides a brief survey of the various contexts of Tertullian’s literary production. It includes a short description of the socio-political landscape during the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, a brief history of Christianity in Roman North Africa, an introduction to the person of Tertullian, and his place within the “apologetic” tradition. I shall, ii then, explain the methodologies that will be employed and the concept of “identity” as heuristic tool. Chapter Two discusses Tertullian’s reappropriation of classical culture for the purpose of self-presentation. Christian rhetoric accommodates itself to contemporary social and political realities. The question of Tertullian’s relationship with the Second Sophistic Movement will be revisited. Chapter Three explores the topic of individuality as an apologetic discourse. Aware of the popular philosophical currents of his time which emphasized “the self” or “selfhood,” Tertullian presents the Christian individual as paradigm of individual virtue, especially for the Roman elite preoccupied with the cultivation of the self (souci de soi). In Chapter Four, contrary to contemporary scholarship, I shall argue that Tertullian took a less revisionist approach in his representation of Christian community’s relationship with the Roman empire, both in its dynamics of community formation and its role in society. In chapter Five, I shall examine how Tertullian elaborates on his claim of Christianity as “vera religio.” Two aspects of his discourse on “religion” will be examined: his argument for libertas religionis and what constitutes a holy man. I conclude that the layering and fusion of legal, philosophical, cultural, and theological topics in Tertullian’s apologetic works underscore the complex processes of negotiation and articulation of Christian identity in a pluralistic society. Truth (veritas) serves as the stabilizing point of reference. Hence, harmony and tension characterize Tertullian’s articulation of Christian identity for it is forged in the hearth of the social, cultural, and religious ferment of his time. iii Acknowledgements Over the course of this dissertation, I have accumulated a number of debts. I would like to thank my dissertation supervisor, Professor Andreas Bendlin. His extraordinary patience with my early drafts, his encouragement and important guidance in critically evaluating vast amount of modern scholarship on Tertullian allowed me to identify various lacunas and reconsider popular assumptions and arguments. The strength of this work owes to his insightful comments. Any error or misjudgement remains my own. I am also grateful to my dissertation committee for their unwavering support: Professors Christer Bruun and John Magee. I benefited greatly from the suggestions and criticism of my external: Prof. Elizabeth DePalma Digeser. This project would not have reached its completion without the assistance of three individuals: my cousin Carmencita Magallon, Msgr. Kenneth Robitaille and the late Fr. George Lawless, OSA who taught me early Christian literature and generated my interest in Late Antiquity. To them, I dedicate this work. iv Table of Contents Introduction and Plan of Study vii Chapter One: Tertullian, Christian Apologetics, and Identity I. Introduction 1 II. The Severan Landscape 5 III. Christianity in Roman North Africa 10 IV. Tertullian: the author 16 V. Tertullian and the “apologetic” tradition 19 VI. Identity as methodology and the processes of socio-cultural and political developments in Roman society. 27 Chapter Two: Paideia I. Introduction 43 II. The Second Sophistic Movement and the role of Paideia in Tertullian’s apologetic writings 46 III. The Rhetoric of Masculinity 58 IV: Consulite commentarios vestros (Apol. 5.3): historical exempla and the politics of historical interpretation 75 V. The perils of myth and the use of myth in the articulation of Christian identity 86 VI. Summary 99 Chapter Three: Individuality as an Apologetic Discourse I. Introduction 102 II. Christianus sum: the philosophical individual 112 III. Souci de soi 123 a. Carcerem nobis pro palaestra interpretamur (Mart. 3.5): the Christian reappropriation of προσοχή 125 b. Meditatio: ut est aemulatio divina rei et humana (Apol. 50.16) 130 IV. Summary 139 Chapter Four: Christian Community and Roman Society I. Introduction 142 II. Memory and Writing: Constructing Christian Identity and Social Relationships 147 III. Cohabitamus hoc saeculum (Apol. 42.2): Christianity and their contemporary Society 156 IV. Summary 171 Chapter Five: “Religion” I. Introduction 174 v II. Vera Religio 179 III. Libertas religionis and the Imperial Cult 183 IV. Contending Holiness 199 V. Summary 210 Conclusion 213 Figures 219 Editions and Translations 222 Bibliography 223 vi Introduction and Plan of Study This dissertation evaluates Tertullian’s construction of Christian identity and its articulation in a pluralistic North African society at the dawn of the third century.1 The primary focus is the earliest works of Tertullian: Ad Martyras, Ad Nationes and the Apologeticum, all written circa 197 A.D.2 The phrase “construction of identity” best describes my intention to investigate how Tertullian articulated, negotiated, and affirmed Christian identity. Tertullian’s articulation of Christian identity had already been studied.3 But, no systematic attempt was made to examine and identify Tertullian’s apologetic strategies in articulating Christian identity and its relationship with various identities in a pluralistic society. Such study helps unravel the mindset of early Christian intellectuals dealing with their desire to be considered part of the Roman society yet distinct from it. Indeed, popular biases against Christians, the romanizing tendencies of local elites in North Africa, the marginalization of sub-elites, the influence of the cultural and intellectual development known as the Second Sophistic Movement, and the political ideologies and propaganda of Emperor Septimius Severus — all of these factors made up the socio-political landscape of Roman North Africa at the dawn of the third century. More than just vitriol against his non-Christian society, can Tertullian’s apologetic discourse be seen likewise as a literary mechanism to engage and address the social, cultural, and religious 1 My use of the modern term “identity” as a heuristic tool in evaluating individual self-identification and group formation during the imperial period will be discussed extensively in chapter one. 2 On the problem of chronology of Tertullian’s work see Tertulliano: opere apologetiche (2006: 134–137). Likewise, Barnes (1985: 30–56); and Fredouille (1972: 487–488). 3 Norris (2004: 71–90). vii concerns of his society? Seen this way, Christian identity will not be trapped in an exclusivistic interpretation of binary opposition to the Roman state.4 Hence, I shall examine select areas in antiquity where identities were explored, contested, and projected, namely socio-cultural, religious, and political spheres of Roman North society. I have identified four spheres that I refer to as “sites” of identity construction, namely paideia, the individual, community, and religion. The relevance of these “sites” of identity construction, which constitute Chapters Two to Five of the dissertation, construction will be explained further along. Chapter One provides a brief general survey of modern scholarship in Tertullian. I shall describe the politics and socio-cultural developments during the reign of Severus as the matrix for Tertullian’s construction and articulation of Christian identity. This approach provides the background to situate Tertullian’s work within the apologetic tradition, both non-Christian and Christian. This is followed by a brief history of Christianity in Roman North Africa and an introduction to the person of the author. Next, I shall explain the methodologies employed in this study and the concept of “identity” as a heuristic tool. Chapter Two discusses Tertullian’s reappropriation of classical culture for the purpose of self-presentation.