The roles of teachers and school culture in the JET (Japan Exchange and Teaching) Programme: an ethnographic case study Submitted by Akiko Nambu, to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Education in TESOL, May, 2015. This thesis is available for library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other university. Signature:…………………….………… 1 Abstract Aiming at internationalisation, the Japanese government initiated the Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) Programme in 1987 by introducing team-teaching by Japanese teachers of English (JTEs) and young graduates from overseas as Assistant Language Teachers (ALTs) into English language classrooms throughout Japanese public schools. Previous studies have shown that there have been, in some cases, a lack of interaction and collaboration between the JTEs and ALTs. However, these studies tended to focus mainly on classroom activities and consequently the teams were found to be the main cause of ineffective teaching and learning. In order to gain a deeper understanding of these team-teaching interactions and problems, the conceptual framework of this ethnographic case study was based on Holliday’s concept of small cultures and Lave and Wenger’s theory of communities of practice. It aimed to explore how team teachers’ (JTEs’ and ALTs’) perceived and actual roles are influenced by school cultures, as well as which aspects of the school cultures could impact on the effectiveness of the JET Programme. It also investigated the ways in which the ALTs are welcomed and accepted into the schools as well as how the ALTs cope with the contexts of specific school settings and cultures. Data for the study were obtained from 4 ALTs, 7 JTEs, 3 administrative teachers and 1 PE teacher through semi- structured individual interviews, observations of team-taught lessons of 5 teams and school activities outside the classrooms which ALTs attended, as well as fieldnotes, artefacts and documents. The findings revealed the complexities of the school cultures (as small cultures) and the effect that these cultures have on the perspectives of ALTs and JTEs, their roles and contributions and on the relationships between the ALTs and JTEs. The cultures also strongly affected the roles of schools as teachers’ professional learning and development communities (communities of practice). This study suggests that the JET Programme needs to be tailored to the specific culture, and that influential people in each school should be involved to overcome any difficulties caused by cultural aspects. These approaches may create supportive professional development communities within the schools and improve collaboration between the JTEs and ALTs. 2 Acknowledgements I would like to express my special appreciation and thanks to Dr. Jill Cadorath, my first supervisor, for her invaluable guidance, thought-provoking feedback and ongoing support. I feel very privileged to have worked with her. I am deeply in debt to Dr. Li Li, my second supervisor, for her honest and critical suggestions. I would also like to express my sincere thanks to Professor Jane Seale, my mentor, for her constant support. Very special thanks also to the administrative staff at the University of Exeter and Graduate School of Education for offering supportive help that enabled me to finish this thesis project. I am very grateful to the participants and schools who allowed me to collect data. Without their understanding and cooperation, I would not have been able to accomplish this study. For their encouragements, generosity and friendships, I would also like to thank Barbara, Donald, Hazel and Sonam Bligh, Elizabeth Griffiths, Giulia Baso, Isaure Triby, Anne-Sophie Noȅl, Claudia Bortolato, Lucia D’errico, Stewart Barr, Yumiko and Jon Moore, Rika Kuzumi, Chryssa Sgouridou, Alireza Memari, Rei Murakami, Kei Ishihara, Paul Vlitos, Keith Coghill, Yukihiro Kawaguchi, and my colleagues at the University of Exeter. Finally, I am deeply indebted to my parents, brother and sister-in-law for their continuous support and love, through the writing of this thesis. Special thanks, therefore, go to Shigenobu, Mitsuko, Shinkoh and Mami Nambu. 3 Table of Contents Abstract....................................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. 3 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. 9 List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... 10 List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................. 11 Chapter 1 .................................................................................................................................. 13 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 13 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 13 1.1 Rationale of the study ................................................................................................... 14 1.2 Significance of the study ............................................................................................... 15 1.3 Research aims and questions ...................................................................................... 16 1.4 Structure of the study .................................................................................................... 17 Chapter 2 .................................................................................................................................. 18 Background to the study ...................................................................................................... 18 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 18 2.1 Improving foreign language education in Japan ....................................................... 19 2.2 Developing international awareness ........................................................................... 21 2.3 Increasing mutual understanding through cultural exchange ................................. 22 Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................................. 24 Literature review ..................................................................................................................... 24 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 24 3.1 Definition of team-teaching ........................................................................................... 24 3.2 Benefits of team-teaching ............................................................................................. 26 3.2.1 Benefits of team-teaching for teachers ............................................................... 26 3.2.2 Benefits of team-teaching for students ................................................................ 26 3.3 Collaborative teaching by NSTs and NNSTs............................................................. 29 3.3.1 The advantages of NSTs ....................................................................................... 29 3.3.2 The disadvantages of NSTs .................................................................................. 30 3.3.3 The weaknesses of NNSTs .................................................................................. 31 3.3.4 The strengths of NNSTs ........................................................................................ 32 3.3.5 The benefits of collaborative teaching by NSTs and NNSTs ........................... 33 3.4 NSs/NNSs: The better teacher? .................................................................................. 34 3.4.1 The rise of English as a lingua franca (ELF) ...................................................... 35 3.5 Team-teaching schemes in the world ......................................................................... 38 4 3.5.1 Issues concerning team-teaching schemes ....................................................... 38 3.5.2 Good practices of team-teaching based on the NEST schemes .................... 40 3.6 Team-teaching by the JTE and ALT ........................................................................... 40 3.6.1 The JET Programme’s interpretation of team-teaching .................................... 40 3.6.2 Some issues concerning team-taught lessons by the JTE and ALT .............. 44 3.7 School Culture ................................................................................................................ 45 3.7.1 The importance of school culture ......................................................................... 45 3.7.2 Types of school culture .........................................................................................