r/ CICER L, A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CHICKPEA {CICER ARIETINUM L.), ITS ECOLOGY AND CULTIVATION L. J. G. VAN DER MAESEN LAN!'/ . 11 GEN WAt;: CICER L., A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CHICKPEA {CICER ARIETINUM L.), ITS ECOLOGY AND CULTIVATION Dit proefschrift met stellingen van LAURENTIUS JOSEPHUS GERARDUS van der MAESEN landbouwkundig ingenieur, geboren te Amsterdam op 18 december 1944, is goedgekeurd door de promotoren Dr. Ir. J. D. Ferwerda, hoogleraar in de Tropische Landbouw- plantenteelt, Dr. H. C. D. de Wit, hoogleraar in de Algemene Planten- systematiek en -geografie, en in het bijzonder die van de Tropen en de Subtropen. De Rector Magnificus van de Landbouwhogeschool, H. A. LENIGER Wageningen, 4 September 1972 635.657 582.738:581.4/.6+581. 9 L. J. G. VAN DER MAESEN CICER L., A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CHICKPEA {CICER ARIETINUM L.), ITS ECOLOGY AND CULTIVATION PROEFSCHRIFT TER VERKRIJGING VAN DE GRAAD VAN DOCTOR IN DE LANDBOUWWETENSCHAPPEN, OPGEZA G VAN DE RECTOR MAGNIFICUS, PROF. DR. IR. H. A. LENIGER, HOOGLERAAR IN DE TECHNOLOGIE, IN HET OPENBAAR TE VERDEDIGEN OP WOENSDAG 11 OKTOBER 1972 TE 16.00 UUR IN DE AULA VAN DE LANDBOUWHOGESCHOOL TE WAGENINGEN H. VEENMAN &ZONE N N.V. - WAGENINGEN - 1972 This thesisi sals o published as Mededelingen Landbouwhogeschool Wageningen 72-10(1972 ) (Communications Agricultural University Wageningen, The Netherlands) Aanmijn ouders CONTENTS PREFACE 1. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE CHICKPEA 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Prehistoric data 1 1.3. Written sources 2 1.4. Uses and peculiarities 3 1.5. Cultivation in ancient times 5 1.6. Geography 5 1.7* Distribution 6 2. TAXONOMY OF THE GENUS CICER L 9 2.1. Introduction 9 2.2. Description of the genus CicerL 10 2.3. Notes 11 2.3.1. Nomenclatural history of the genus 11 2.3.2. Relationship to other genera 12 2.3.3. Habit and growth 13 2.3.4. Flowering seasons 14 2.3.5. The geographical distribution of the genus CicerL 15 2.3.6. Availability of material 15 2.3.7. Uses 17 2.4. Subdivision of the genus 17 2.5. Key to the species of Cicer 20 2.6. Description of the species 24 2.7. Infraspecific classification of Cicerarietinum L 131 2.7.1. Existing classifications 131 2.7.2. Discussion 132 2.7.3. Informal infraspecific classification in Cicer arietinum L 133 3. AREA, PRODUCTION AND TRADE 137 3.1. Area 137 3.2. Production and productivity 140 3.3. Trends in production 142 3.4. Trade 146 3.5. Prices of chickpeas 148 3.6. Grades 149 4. ANATOMY . 151 5. CULTIVATION 153 5.1. Introduction 153 5.2. Soil preparation 153 5.3. Sowing 154 5.3.1. Sowing seed 154 5.3.2. Ways of sowing 155 5.3.3. Sowing date . 155 5.3.4. Density of sowing • 156 5.3.5. Sowing depth 156 5.4. Post-sowing cultivation treatments 158 5.5. Mixed cropping 159 5.6. Crop rotation 161 5.7. Fertilizing and manuring 162 5.8. Control of diseases and pests 164 5.9. Harvesting 164 5.10. Threshing .164 5.11. Grading 164 5.12. Storage 165 6. ECOLOGY 166 6.1. Introduction 166 6.2. General description of material and methods 166 6.2.1. Plant material used in the trials 166 6.2.2. Plant characteristics of the chickpea 166 6.2.3. Methods of growing chickpea plants 167 6.2.4. Influence of sowing depths 170 6.2.5. Maximum sowing depth 171 6.3. Light and photosynthesis 173 6.3.1. Introduction 173 6.3.2. Literature and previous observations 174 6.3.3. Photosynthesis 174 6.3.4. Potential production 181 6.3.5. Influence of light intensity on flowering and fruit-setting 184 6.4. Photoperiodism 187 6.4.1. Introduction 187 6.4.2. Investigation on daylength 1 188 6.4.3. Investigation on daylength 2 190 6.4.4. Photoperiodic effect of the sowing date 1 193 6.4.5. Photoperiodic effect of the sowing date 2 195 6.4.6. Influence of timing of application of supplementary light in the daily photo­ periodic regime 196 6.4.7. General conclusions 198 6.5. Temperature 198 6.5.1. Introduction 198 6.5.2. Optimum temperature for germination 201 6.5.3. Influence of daily temperature amplitudes 202 6.5.4. Initial investigation on the effects of temperature 203 6.5.5. Effects of 6 temperature ranges on early growth 204 6.5.6. Effects of 6temperatur erange so n growthan d flowering 207 6.6. Relative humidity and other factors affecting flowering 208 6.6.1. Introduction 208 6.6.2. Air humidity 209 6.6.3. Other factors in relation to seed-setting 209 6.6.4. Relative humidity and vegetative growth 210 6.6.5. Relative humidity, flowering and fruit-setting 1 211 6.6.6. Relative humidity,flowering an d fruit-setting 2 214 6.7. Soils and nutrients 217 6.7.1. Soils 217 6.7.2. Mineral nutrients and fertility 221 6.7.3. Symbiosis, introduction 224 6.7.4. Symbiosis, systematic classification of thespecifi c Rhizobium 226 6.7.5. • Symbiosis, own observations 226 6.8. Effects of phytohormones 228 6.9. Regeneration after mutilation ." 229 6.9.1. Introduction on the practice of topping 229 6.9.2. Topping Trial 1 230 6.9.3. Topping Trial 2 231 6.10. Concluding remarks 234 7. BREEDING 235 7.1. Introduction 235 7.2. Genetics 235 7.2.1. Cytogenetics, polyploidy and aneuploidy 235 7.2.2. Genetic factors 238 7.2.3. Correlations and heritability 238 7.3. Flowering and crossing techniques 243 7.4. Breeding methods .' 245 7.4.1. Present breeding research 245 7.4.2. Breeding criteria 246 7.4.3. Breeding systems 249 7.4.4. Introduction of new cultivars 249 7.5. Classification of cultivars 251 8. PESTS OF THE CHICKPEA 253 8.1. Introduction 253 8.2. Insect pests 253 8.2.1. Gram caterpillar, gram podborer, old world bollworm etc 253 8.2.2. Red gram plume moth 254 8.2.3. Gram cutworm, greasy cutworm 254 8.2.4. Gram or pea semilooper 255 8.2.5. Chickpea leaf-miner flies 255 8.2.6. Pulse beetles 256 8.2.7. Other insects reported to feed on chickpea 258 8.3. Nematodes 259 8.4. Other animal pests 259 8.5. Plant parasite 259 9. DISEASES OF THE CHICKPEA 260 9.1. Introduction 260 9.2. Wilt disease 260 9.3. Other Fusarium witt diseases 264 9.4. Blight disease 264 9.5. Stem rot 269 9.6. Foot rot 270 9.7. Rust 270 9.8. Verticillium wilt disease 271 9.9. Rhizoctoniawil t disease 272 9.10. Leaf spot disease 272 9.11. Phytophthoradisease s 272 9.12. Other fungal diseases 273 9.13. Bacterial disease 273 9.14. Virus diseases 274 10. USES 275 10.1. Introduction 275 10.2. Human food 275 10.2.1. Acids 277 10.2.2. Fresh shoots 277 10.2.3. Fresh seeds .278 10.2.4. Ripe seeds 279 10.2.5. Split seeds 283 10.2.6. Sprouted seeds 283 10.2.7. Meal and flour 284 10.2.8. Balanced foods 284 10.3. Cattle feed 286 10.3.1. Fresh plants 286 10.3.2. Hay 286 10.3.3. Seeds 287 10.4. Nutritive value 287 10.4.1. Chemical composition 287 10.4.2 Amino acid composition 290 SUMMARY 292 SAMENVATTING 295 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 299 BIBLIOGRAPHY 300 INDEX OF AUTHORS 335 INDEX OF NAMES IN CICER 341 ... Even as from a broad shovel in a great threshing floor, fly the blackskinned beans and chickpeas, before the whistling wind,an d the stresso fth ewinnower' s shovel,eve ns ofro m the breastplate of renowned Menelaos bounced far away the bitter arrow of Helenus... (after LANG, LEAFan d MEYERS: Th ecomplet eWork so fHomer ) STELLINGEN I De bloei vand e meeste cultivars van Cicer arietinum wordt versneld door Lange Dag. II Het begrip cleistogamie voor de afwijkingen in bloei en vruchtzettingva n Cicer arietinum wordt door CHANDRASEKHARANe n PARTHASARATHYonjuis t ge- hanteerd. CHANDRASEKHARAN, S. N. and PARTHASARATHY, S. V.,Cytogene ­ tics andPlan t Breeding. Madras: 349 (1948); 339 (1960) III De kritieke daglengte van Cicer arietinum heeft voor de praktijk van deteel t geen betekenis. SANDHU, S. S. and HODGES, H. F., Agron. J. 63-6: 913-914 (1971) > IV Experimenteel taxonomisch onderzoek isgebode n om de vormenrijkdomi n het genus Cicer tenvoil e praktisch tekunne n benutten. V Ecologie als autonome wetenschap is toch onverbrekelijk gekoppeld aan taxonomie. WILSON, E.O. ,Ecolog y 52-5: 741 (1971) VI Internationale regelingen behoren wetenschappelijk botanisch onderzoek in grensgebieden ofpolitie k omstreden-gebieden mogelijk te makenvoo r gekwali- ficeerde onderzoekers van elke nationaliteit. VII De chemische en anatomische eigenschappen van Cadia {Caes.) bevestigen de reeds bestaande morfologisch-taxonomische visie,da the tgenu s een uitzon- derlijke plaats inhe tsystee m toekomt. VAN EYK, J. L.e n RADEMA, M.H. ,Pharra . Weekbl. 107: 13-20 (1972); CORNER, E. J. H., Phytomorphology 1: 117 (1951) en pers. commun. (1972) VIII De veredeling op resistentie tegen insecten iste nonrecht e achtergeblevenbi j de veredeling opresistenti e tegen schimmels. IX Bij hetopspore n vand eoorzake n vanverwelkin g bij Cicer arietinum moet behalveaa nd estmctuu rva nd egron de nd eaanwezighei d vanbodemschimmel s ook aan nematoden aandacht worden geschonken.