NOTES CHAPTER I 1. F. G. Ackerley, "Romano-Esi," Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, Third Series, Vol. 27, Nos. 3-4 (July-October 1948), p. 158. 2. Elena Marushiakova, "Ethnic Identity Among Gypsy Groups in Bulgaria," Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, Fifth Series, Vol. 2, No.2 (August 1992), p. 110. 3. M. I. Isaev, Sto tridtsat' ravnopravnykh (Moskva: lzdatel'stvo "Nauka," 1970), p. 73; George C. Soulis, "The Gypsies in the Byzantine Empire and the Balkans in the Late Middle Ages," Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 15 (1961), pp. 144-145. 4. Angus Fraser, The Gypsies (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), p. 46. 5. Soulis, "The Gypsies of the Byzantine Empire," pp. 146-147. 6. Mercia Macdermott, A History of Bulgaria, 1393-1885 (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1962), pp. 18-20; B. Gilliat-Smith, "Endani 'Relatives,"' Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, Third Series, Vol. 37, Nos. 3-4 (July-October 1958), p. _156. 7. Soulis, "The Gypsies in the Byzantine Empire," pp. 147-150; Kiril Kostov, "Virkhu proizkhoda na tsiganite i tekhniya ezik," Bulgarski ezik, Vol. VII, No.4 (1957), p. 344; Bulgarians and Greeks were the most predominant groups enslaved by the Turks in the fourteenth century. Halil inalcik, "Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire," in Abraham Ascher, Tibor Halasi-Kun, and BelaK. Kiraly, eds., The Mutual Effects of the Islamic and Judea-Christian Worlds: The East European Pattern (Brooklyn, N. Y.: Brooklyn College Press, 1979), p. 38. 8. Jean-Pierre Liegeois, Gypsies and Travellers (Strasbourg: Council for Cultural Cooperation, 1987), p. 14. 9. Stanford Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Volume I, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280-1808 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 20-22; northern Bulgaria remained nominally independent until 1393, when the Turks took over Nikopol, the northern capital of Bulgaria's ruler, Tsar Ivan Shishman. Within three years, all other Bulgarian opposi­ tion leaders were overthrown, and Bulgaria passed completely into Turkish hands. Macdermott, History ofBulgaria, pp. 20-21. 10. Peter F. Sugar, Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1977), p. 14. 11. Dr. S. S. Shashi, Roma: The Gypsy World (Dehli: Sundeep Prekashan, 1990), p. 21; Ian Hancock, "The Romani Diaspora," The World and I (March 1989), p. 615. 12. Soulis, "The Gypsies in the Byzantine Empire," pp. 160-161; Donald Kenrick and Grattan Puxon, The Destiny of Europe's Gypsies (New York: Basic Books, 1972), p. 15; Marushiakova, "Ethnic Identity Among Gypsy Groups in Bulgaria," p. 100; Fraser, The Gypsies, p. 57; Vesselin Popov, "The Gypsies and Traditional Bulgarian Culture," Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, Fifth Series, Vol. 3, No.1 (February 1993), pp. 21, 31 n. 1. 13. Sugar, Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, pp. 77, 86. 14. Marushkiakova, "Ethnic Identity Among Gypsy Groups in Bulgaria," p. 113, n. 3; Helsinki Watch, Destroying Ethnic Identity: The Gypsies of Bulgaria (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1991), p. 7. 240 A HISTORY OF THE GYPSIES OF EASTERN EUROPE AND RUSSIA 15. Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, p. 19; John Peffer, Shock Waves: Eastern Europe after the Revolutions (Boston: South End Press, 1992), p. 227; the only instances of forced con­ versions in the sixteenth century besides those already mentioned were of "Balkan slave boys recruited to staff the imperial household." Paul Coles, The Ottoman Impact on Europe (London: Harcourt, Brace, 1968), pp. 174-175. It wa~ also during this period that mass conversions of Albanians and Montenegrins took place; "Petrulengo," "Report on the Gypsy Tribes of North-East Bulgaria," Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, New Series, Vol. 9, No.2 (1915-16), pp. 65, 69. 16. Ilhan ~ahin, Feridun M. Emecen, and Yusuf Hala~qlu, "Turkish Settlements in Rumelia (Bulgaria) in the 15th and 16th Centuries," in The Turks of Bulgaria: The History, Culture and Political Fate of a Minority ed. K. H. Karpat (Istanbul: The Isis Press, 1990), pp. 27-28; Machiel Kiel, "Urban Development in Bulgaria in the Turkish Period: The Place of Turkish Architecture in the Process," in Karpat, ed., The Turks ofBulgaria, pp. 87, 89, 91, 95, 106, 109. For more on the reliability of Turkish statistics, see Stephen P. Ladas, The Exchange of Minorities: Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey (New York: Macmillan, 1932), p. 9; One of the negative aspects of the Gypsy presence in cities such as Plovdiv and Sofia was prostitution, which Suleiman the Magnificent tried to regulate in 1530. Fraser, The Gypsies, p. 175. 17. Sugar, Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, pp. 37, n.3, 46, 102-103; Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, pp. 19, 26. 18. George C. Soulis, "A Note on the Taxation of the Balkan Gypsies in the Seventeenth Century," Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, Third Series, Vol. 38, Nos. 1-2 (January-April1959), pp. 154-156. 19. R. J. Crampton, A Short History of Modern Bulgaria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 9-11; Macdermott, History of Bulgaria, pp. 43-45, 47-51, 105-107; Sugar, Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, pp. 242-245. 20. Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, pp. 260-261, 264-265; Macdermott, History of Bulgaria, pp. 104-105. 21. Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Volume II, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808-1975 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), pp. 12-21, 59-61; Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall ofthe Turkish Empire (New York: Morrow, 1977), pp. 437-456; R. J. Crampton, "Bulgarian Society in the Early 19th Ce~;~tury," in Balkan Society in the Age of Greek Independence, ed. Richard Clogg (Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble Books, 1981), p. 157; Macdermott, History ofBulgaria, p. 116. 22. Shaw and Shaw, Reform, Revolution, and Republic, p. 40; Crampton, "Bulgarian Society," pp. 157-158. 23. Crampton, "Bulgarian Society," pp. 173-177, 180-181. 24. S. G. B. St. Clair and Charles A. Brophy, A Residence in Bulgaria: Or Notes on the Resources and Administration ofTurkey (London: John Murray, 1869), pp. 7-8. 25. Ibid., p. 8. 26. Ibid., pp. 9-11; this word is also rendered as rayas orReaya ("The Flock"). Originally, Rayahs were all of the "subjects of the sultan who were not members of his Ruling Class." In time, the term came to mean only the non-Muslim peoples of the Ottoman Empire. Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, p. 150; Sugar, Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, p. 348; Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, pp. 112-113. 27. Macdermott, History of Bulgaria, pp. 170-186; Shaw and Shaw, Reform, Revolution, and Republic, pp. 160-161; Crampton, "Bulgarian Society," pp. 172-177, 184. 28. Macdermott, History of Bulgaria, pp. 144-157, 161-165, 167; Crampton, Modern Bulgaria, p. 17. 29. St. Clair and Brophy, A Residence in Bulgaria, p. 45; many Romanian Gypsies had fled Romania soon after their emancipation in 1864 because they feared "reenslave- NOTES 241 ment if the political system collapsed as it had in 1848." David M. Crowe, "The Gypsy Historical Experience in Romania," in The Gypsies of Eastern Europe, ed. David M. Crowe and John Kolsti (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 1991), p. 67. 30. Macdermott, History of Bulgaria, pp. 170--186; Shaw and Shaw, Reform, Revolution, and Republic, pp. 160--162; Crampton, Modern Bulgaria, pp. 18-19. 31. Macdermott, History of Bulgaria, pp. 250, 254, 261. 32. W. E. Mosse, Alexander 1/ and the Modernization of Russia (New York: Collier Books, 1970), pp. 130--131; Macdermott, History of Bulgaria, pp. 276, 283-289. Bulgarian, Western, and Turkish claims about the extent of the massacres after the April Uprising vary widely. Macdermott says that 30,000 Bulgarians were killed, while some British press reports claimed as many as 100,000 died at Turkish hands. Shaw places the number of Christian dead in Bulgaria at 4,000 but admits that far more Muslims died. Furthermore, there was "some massacre and countermassacre between Muslim and Christian villages." Shaw and Shaw, Reform, Revolution, and Republic, p. 162; for more on the role of the British press in the early stages of this cri­ sis, see Ann Pottinger Saab, Reluctant Icon: Gladstone, Bulgaria, and the Working Class, 1856-1878 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), pp. 82-90; Mihailo D. Stojanovic, The Great Powers and the Balkans, 1875-1878 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp. 130--132. 33. Bart McDowell, Gypsies: Wanderers of the World (Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 1970), p. 119; B. H. Sumner, Russia and the Balkans, 1870-1880 (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1962), pp. 337-338; R.W. Seton-Watson, The Russian Empire, 1801-1917 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 453-456; Macdermott, History of Bulgaria, p. 296. The Turks suffered 10,000 casualties in August 1877 at Shipka Pass, at which there were several other important battles during the war. Shaw and Shaw, Reform, Revolution and Republic, pp. 184-186. 34. Stojanovic, Great Powers, p. 232; Macdermott, History of Bulgaria, pp. 298-299; Shaw and Shaw, Reform, Revolution and Republic, p. 188. 35. Macdermott, History ofBulgaria, pp. 308-309; Stojanovic, Great Powers, pp. 280--281; oddly enough, a peculiar Gypsy presence was felt at the Berlin talks. The British foreign secretary, the Marquis of Salisbury, later described Count Julius Andrassy, the Austro­ Hungarian foreign minister, as looking "thinner and gypsyer" at the gathering. Sumner, Russia and the Balkans, pp. 507, 526-528; Shaw and Shaw, Reform, Revolution and Republic, pp. 188, 190--191; Crampton, Modern Bulgaria, pp. 19-20. 36. Crampton, Modern Bulgaria, pp. 21-31; Macdermott, History of Bulgaria, pp. 311-342 passim; Shaw and Shaw, Reform, Revolution and Republic, p.