Information Trolls vs. Democracy: An examination of fake news content delivered during the 2019 Canadian Federal election and the generation of information warfare by Rachelle C. Louden B.A. (Hons., Criminology), Kwantlen Polytechnic University, 2017 Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the School of Criminology Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences © Rachelle C. Louden 2020 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Fall 2020 Copyright in this work rests with the author. Please ensure that any reproduction or re-use is done in accordance with the relevant national copyright legislation. Declaration of Committee Name: Rachelle C. Louden Degree: Master of Arts (Criminology) Title: Information Trolls vs. Democracy: An examination of fake news content delivered during the 2019 Canadian Federal election and the generation of information warfare Committee: Chair: Bryan Kinney Associate Professor, Criminology Richard Frank Supervisor Associate Professor, Criminology Raymond Corrado Committee Member Professor, Criminology Patrick Lalonde Examiner Faculty, Criminology Douglas College ii Ethics Statement iii Abstract This research explores the role of fake news delivered during the 2019 Canadian Federal election. The aim of this study is to understand what impact exposure to fake news may have had on voter’s political ideologies and to examine whether criminal interference was involved. This study employs a survey which was delivered through social media platforms to Canadian voters in hopes to understand whether they were exposed to fake news, if it affected their ultimate voting decision, if they were the recipient of an election-related robocall, and what the nature of the robocall was. The results of four binary logistic regressions using survey data (N = 190) are used to explain how fake news can impact voter’s decisions. Further, this study also employs a qualitative content analysis of known fake news headlines (N = 596) during the time of the election to determine the aim, scope, target, and nature of each news piece. A final qualitative content analysis is conducted to determine the nature of robocalls through survey respondents who were the recipient of an election-related robocall (N = 46). The findings of these studies allow for an in-depth examination into whether Canadian voters were influenced by fake news, if the influence that had an impact on their voting decision, and if criminal interference was involved during the time of the election. Keywords: fake news; misinformation; disinformation; foreign interference; information warfare iv Acknowledgements I would first like to thank my senior supervisor, Dr. Richard Frank. You have been so compassionate and supportive during the entire process. At each step along the way to completing this thesis, you provided me encouragement and direction; I thank-you so much. If I had not been hired as a research assistant with the International CyberCrime Research Centre, I would have likely not found my passion for cybercrime research. Thank-you for all of the opportunities you have provided me that have assisted my academic growth in graduate school. I would also like to thank Dr. Martin Bouchard, Dr. Ted Palys, and Dr. Sheri Fabian. Through my enrollment in CRIM 861, 862, and 864, you all have provided me with the tools and experience in both quantitative and qualitative research methods that were needed to carry out this research. Without your expertise and interest in my growth, this thesis would not exist. I would also like to thank Dr. Raymond Corrado. Your passion for the application of criminological theory to research has been infectious. Thank-you for providing me with the theoretical foundation necessary to carry out quality research. Your passion has reassured me on my academic path in criminology. I would also like to extend a huge thank-you to the other graduate students at SFU who have helped me along the way with course-related and emotional support. Amanda, Schmidt, Jeremy, Ruby, Karm, Hana, Michaela, April, Naomi, Faith, Shana, and Sarah-May, you have all been so supportive and I have learned so much from each one of you; I appreciate you all! I would also like to thank my Mom, Janet. You are always encouraging me to be the best version of myself. Thank-you so much for your continuous love and support. I would not have been able to come this far without you. Another thank-you to my partner, Mike. You have been my rock throughout my time in graduate school. Thank-you for being there for me during the good days and the bad days and boosting my self- confidence during times when I doubted myself. I would also like to thank my Dad and Stepmom for their support throughout my academic career. v Table of Contents Declaration of Committee ................................................................................................ ii Ethics Statement ............................................................................................................ iii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... vi List of Tables .................................................................................................................. ix List of Figures.................................................................................................................. x Glossary ......................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2. Literature Review ..................................................................................... 3 2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 3 2.2. Misinformation and Disinformation: Propaganda and Fake News .......................... 4 2.3. The Construction of Knowledge and the Role of Claims Makers in Fake News ..... 7 2.3.1. Social Construction Theory ............................................................................ 7 2.3.2. Information Trolls and Information Warfare .................................................... 8 2.3.3. Media as an Information System ................................................................... 9 2.4. The Legality of Fake News .................................................................................. 11 2.4.1. Pierre Poutine: 2011 Robocall Voter Suppression Scandal.......................... 11 2.4.2. Voter Suppression Robocalls: Federal Election 2019 .................................. 13 2.4.3. Misinformation Campaigns by Foreign Entities ............................................ 14 Russian Trolling During the 2016 U.S Presidential Election ................................... 14 Information Trolls During the 2019 Canadian Federal Election ............................... 16 2.4.4. Difficulties in Investigating and Prosecuting Information Trolls ..................... 17 2.4.5. Fake News and Freedom of Expression ...................................................... 19 Chapter 3. Study 1 – Quantitative Analysis ............................................................ 21 3.1. Methods .............................................................................................................. 21 3.1.1. Research Questions and Hypotheses .......................................................... 21 3.1.2. Survey Data: Sampling and Recruitment ..................................................... 22 3.2. Variables ............................................................................................................. 26 3.2.1. Dependent Variable: Change of Vote .......................................................... 27 3.2.2. Independent Variables ................................................................................. 27 Headline Variables ................................................................................................. 27 Perceived Truth Variables ...................................................................................... 28 Demographic Variables .......................................................................................... 28 Political Affiliation ................................................................................................... 30 Media Usage Habits ............................................................................................... 30 Primary Source of Election Information .................................................................. 31 3.2.3. Analytic Strategy .......................................................................................... 31 3.3. Results ................................................................................................................ 33 vi 3.3.1. Descriptive Statistic Analysis ....................................................................... 33 Demographic Factors and the Influence of Media on Political Decisions ................ 33 Self-Identified Political Affiliation and the Influence of Media on Political Decisions 34 Primary Source of Election Information and the Influence of