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UMI Adapting to a World of Change: Inuit Perspectives of Environmental Changes in Igloolik, Nunavut By Kelly Sandra Elizabeth Karpala, B.A. Honours (Trent) A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Sociology and Anthropology Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario May 2010 ©2010 Kelly Karpala Library and Archives Bibliothgque et 1*1 Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de l'6dition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-68683-6 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-68683-6 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distribute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non- support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. Canada i Abstract Climate change is becoming one of the most important foci of scientific research. The Arctic is particularly sensitive to changes in climate, and Inuit are in a good position to experience such changes as they interact with their environment on a daily basis while traveling, hunting and camping on the land and sea ice. The perceptions of what those changes mean, however, differ from the views predominantly held by scientists, especially when they relate to local observations. Inuit in Igloolik, where this research has been focused, do not see local environmental change as a new event. Inuit and their ancestors have inhabited the Arctic for thousands of years, adapting to and enduring many periods of climatic variability and change. Inuit knowledge of the environment constitutes a unique aspect of their culture and has been crucial to their own adaptive capacity. This thesis shows that Inuit in Igloo lik see the environmental changes experienced today as part of a cycle. They also believe that they will adapt to those changes, and that animals are equally capable of adapting. This thesis also analyzes how Inuit in Igloo lik relate these experiences to larger debates of global climate change. It contrasts the local narratives of change with those produced by scientific reports, the media, and Inuit organizations. In this sense, this thesis helps develop abetter understanding of the process of knowledge construction in situations where the local and the global intersect. Finally, this thesis aims to show that although research studies increasingly acknowledge the value and utility of local indigenous knowledge, cultural and linguistic barriers continue to persist to permit fruitful collaboration. ii Ackno wle dg me nts This thesis could not have become what it is today without the involvement of individuals who helped me along the way. I first want to thank my supervisors Dr. Claudio Aporta and Dr. Gita Laidler who gave me the opportunity to pursue this project. It was with their guidance, support and determination throughout this process that I managed to exceed even my own expectations and produce this thesis. I also want to thank my committee members Dr. Paul Thibaudeau and Dr. Derek Smith, who contributed with their own expertise and insights to improve this thesis. Of course my thesis could not have been possible without the help and contributions from the hamlet of Igloo lik. I want to thank the community for welcoming me and hosting me while I stumbled through my first fieldwork experience. In particular, I want to thank Theo Ikummaq who was my interpreter, guide and teacher, and made my trip an intellectually and culturally enriching experience. I want to thank the community members who participated in interviews and focus groups: Abraham Ulayuruluk, Jayson Kunnuk, Moshi Kotierk, Michelline Ammaq, Julia Amarualik, Lydia Qaumaq, Herve Paniaq, Leah Otak, Nathan Qamaniq, Jaipiti Palluq, and John Arnatsiaq. I also want to thank Elizabeth Peacock and her husband Steve; Steve and Hillary Van Slyke for housing me during my stay; John and Carolyn MacDonald for their kindness and hospitality; and Terri-Lynn Chiblow, William Qamukaq and Julie Ross. Lastly, I want to show my gratitude to my family, friends and colleagues who motivated and encouraged me to keep going, and assisted me along the way. In particular I want to thank my mom and dad, my brothers Jeff and Brian, my class cohort Alana Conway, Caryl Patrick, Jenny McKenzie, Leanne Davis and Terrah Jong; graduate students Jen Slawich, Christine Homuth, Gerald Morton, Sheryl McLaughlin, and Murray Leeder; and my friends back home. iii Table of contents Abstract I Acknowledgments II Table of contents IH List of acronyms V List of tables and figures VI Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 OVERVIEW 1 1.2 CASE STUDY CONTEXT 4 1.3 OBJECTIVES AND RATIONALE 8 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH 12 1.5 OUTLINE AND CONTENT 13 Chapter 2: Methodology and theory 15 2.1 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS 16 2.1.1 Current debates on indigenous knowledge 16 2.1.2 Understanding and talking about change 20 2.2 RESEARCH METHODS 27 2.2.1 Literature review 27 2.1.2 Participant observation 28 2.1.3 Field notes 29 2.1.4 Interviews 30 2.1.5 Archival research 33 2.2 ANALYSIS 34 2.2.1 Transcribing and coding 34 2.2.2 Narrative analysis 35 Chapter 3: Ethnographic context 37 3.1 FIRST ARCTIC INHABITANTS 38 3.2 THULE MIGRATION 41 3.3 INUIT AND EUROPEAN CONTACT 44 3.4 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CHANGES 49 3.5 INUIT WORLD VIEW 55 Chapter 4: Inuit observations of local change 60 4.1 CHANGES IN SEA ICE 62 4.1.1 Freeze-up timing 62 4.1.2 Ice thickness 64 4.1.3 Floe edge and moving ice 65 4.1.4 Multi-year ice 66 4.1.5 Break-up timing 69 4.2 CHANGES IN WEATHER 71 4.2.1 Temperature 74 4.2.2 Winds 76 4.2.3 Snow 76 4.2.4 Rain 77 iv 4.2.5 Sun, clouds and sky 78 4.3 CHANGES IN ANIMALS 80 4.3.1 Effects of diminishing ice on animals 82 4.3.2 Migration and arrival of new species 83 Chapter 5: Climate change narratives 88 5.1 IDEOLOGY IN INUIT AND SCIENTIFIC NARRATIVES 91 5.2 CLIMATE CHANGE NARRATIVES OF SCIENTISTS 95 5.2.1 Arctic Climate Impact Assessment 97 5.2.2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 101 5.3 LOCAL INUIT PERSPECTIVES OF CLIMATE CHANGE 107 5.3.1 What is climate change? 107 5.3.2 Focus on adaptation 109 5.3.3 Talking about change may provoke the change 111 5.4 INUIT NATIONAL NARRATIVES 115 5.5 THE LOCAL, THE NATIONAL AND THE GLOBAL 120 Chapter 6: Conclusion 125 Bibliography 130 Appendix A: Interview questions 142 Appendix B: Coding - femilies and codes 144 V List of acronyms ACIA- Arctic Climate Impact Assessment AMAP - Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program COP - Conferences of the Parties GN - Government ofNunavut GPS - Global Positioning System HBC - Hudson Bay Company ICC - Inuit Circumpolar Council ILUOP - Inuit Land Use and Occupancy Project IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPY - International Polar Year IQ - Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit (Inuit knowledge) ISIUOP - Inuit Sea Ice Use and Occupancy Project ITK - Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami NIC - Nunavut Implementation Commission NRI - Northern Research Institute NSTP - Northern Scientific Training Program OHP - Oral History Project RCMP - Royal Canadian Mounted Police TEK - traditional ecological knowledge UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change vi List of tables and figures Figure 1.1 - Map ofNunavut 5 Table 2.1 - List of Inuit participants 30 Figure 3.1 - Distribution of Eastern Arctic cultures from4000BP to 1700AD 39 Figure 4.1 - The kikiak formed at Ivunirarjuq by the floe edge, with moving ice in the distance 67 Figure 4.2: Ikummaq pointing out a large killaq (singular for killait) on the sea ice 70 Figure 4.3: Polar bear spotted on the rough ice near the floe edge 85 1 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Overview Climate change is one of the most significant and pressing global issues of our time. Ongoing national and international discussions are taking place. For instance, the issue is the centre of debate for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) through such forums as the annual Conferences of the Parties (COP).