THE BOUNDARIES OF EXECUTIVE AUTHORITY Using Executive Orders to Implement Federal Climate Change Policy FEBRUARY 2008 A Report by the Center for Energy & Environmental Security Produced for the Presidential Climate Action Project The Boundaries of Executive Authority: Using Executive Orders to Implement Federal Climate Change Policy Alaine Ginocchio, Esq. Project Leader, Lead Author, and CEES Professional Research Associate Kevin L. Doran, Esq. Project Supervisor, Contributor, and CEES Senior Research Fellow Associate Authors: Katherine Peters, CEES Professional Research Associate Kendall Burgemeister, CEES Research Associate Leah Carlson, CEES Research Associate Benjamin Daniels, CEES Research Associate Alexander Nelson, CEES Research Associate Victoria Ravenscroft, CEES Research Associate Research Assistants contributing to this project include: Jonathan Lindeen, Esq., Chris Achatz, Kristen Cunningham, Jennifer Dill, Margaret Enfinger, James S. Lamb, Marie Nakagawa, and Douglas Vilsack. This page left intentionally blank. THE BOUNDARIES OF EXECUTIVE AUTHORITY: USING EXECUTIVE ORDERS TO IMPLEMENT FEDERAL CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY Table of Contents: Overview Chapter I. Introduction: Scope of Work and Overview of Report ............................................................... 1 Chapter II. Tools Available to the Executive ................................................................................................ 5 Chapter III. Analysis of the Authority for Executive Orders ...................................................................... 15 A. Overview: Sources of Authority and Framework for Analysis ...................................................... 15 B. President’s Authority to Issue an Executive Order: Guidance from a Review of Federal Case Law ............................................................................... 21 Chapter IV. A Closer Look at Statutory Delegations .................................................................................. 43 A. Review and Compilation of Delegation Authority in Energy and Environmental Executive Orders (1937‐2007) .............................................................................. 43 B. When Delegations are Given Their Broadest Interpretation: The Antiquities Act and the Federal Procurement Act ................................................................. 48 C. Response to the 1970’s Energy Crisis and the Carter Administration .......................................... 53 Chapter V. Other Considerations When Determining Whether to Use Executive Orders ....................... 71 A. Other Considerations .................................................................................................................... 71 B. Presidential Philosophy: The Taft‐Roosevelt‐Roosevelt Continuum ............................................. 74 Chapter VI. The President’s Authority Over Agencies .............................................................................. 93 Chapter VII. Authority to Reorganize Executive Entities ......................................................................... 109 Chapter VIII. Regulating Greenhouse Gas Emissions Under the Clean Air Act ....................................... 117 Chapter IX. The Federal Government as a Consumer: Climate Mitigation through Procurement .......... 127 Chapter X. Emergency Authority ............................................................................................................. 139 Chapter XI. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 162 Appendices ................................................................................................................................................... A A. Table: U.S. Code Titles Included in Database .................................................................................. A B. Table: Energy and Environmental Executive Orders ....................................................................... F C. Table: Statutory Authority for Energy and Environmental Executive Orders ............................... BB CENTER FOR ENERGY & ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY, 2008 CEES i | P a g e CENTER FOR ENERGY & ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY • UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO LAW SCHOOL • BOULDER, COLORADO Table of Contents: Detailed Chapter I. Introduction: Scope of Work and Overview of Report ............................................................... 1 Chapter II. Tools Available to the Executive ................................................................................................ 5 1. The Executive Order .................................................................................................................. 5 2. Presidential Proclamation ......................................................................................................... 7 3. Presidential Memorandum ....................................................................................................... 7 4. Signing Statement ..................................................................................................................... 8 5. National Security Directive ........................................................................................................ 9 6. Recommending Legislation: The “Executive Communication” ................................................. 9 7. Call Congress into Special Session ........................................................................................... 10 8. Veto Power .............................................................................................................................. 11 9. Power to Execute Treaties ....................................................................................................... 11 10. Executive Agreements ............................................................................................................. 11 11. Voice as Head of Party and Head of Executive Branch ........................................................... 13 Chapter III. Analysis of the Authority for Executive Orders ...................................................................... 15 A. Overview: Sources of Authority and Framework for Analysis ...................................................... 15 1. Sources of Authority for Executive Orders .............................................................................. 15 2. Framework for Judicial Review of Executive Orders ............................................................... 16 a. Relationship Between Executive and Will of Congress ..................................................... 17 b. The Subject Matter of the Executive Order ...................................................................... 18 c. Circumstances ................................................................................................................... 20 B. President’s Authority to Issue an Executive Order: Guidance from a Review of Federal Case Law ............................................................................... 21 1. The Overarching Framework ................................................................................................... 21 a. The Youngstown Framework ............................................................................................ 21 b. The Youngstown Void ....................................................................................................... 22 2. Constitutional Authority .......................................................................................................... 23 3. Statutory Authority ................................................................................................................. 23 a. Stack’s Three‐Category Framework .................................................................................. 24 b. The President is Not Held to the Same Standards as Administrative Agencies ............... 25 4. Intersection of Constitutional and Statutory Authority .......................................................... 27 CENTER FOR ENERGY & ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY, 2008 CEES ii | P a g e THE BOUNDARIES OF EXECUTIVE AUTHORITY: USING EXECUTIVE ORDERS TO IMPLEMENT FEDERAL CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY 5. Going Against the “Will of Congress” ...................................................................................... 28 a. Congress Grants Some Authority, but the President Oversteps that Authority ............... 28 b. Action Contrary to the Manifest Intent of Congress as Evinced by Another Statute ....... 29 6. Implementation by the Executive Agency ............................................................................... 31 a. A Valid Executive Order is Implemented in an Invalid Manner ........................................ 31 b. Executive Orders Can Limit Agency Discretion ................................................................. 32 7. Violating Other Constitutional Provisions ............................................................................... 32 a. Standard of Review ........................................................................................................... 32 b. Fifth Amendment Takings Clause ..................................................................................... 33 c. Fifth Amendment Due Process Clause .............................................................................. 34 8. Usurping Congress’s Inherent Power .....................................................................................