Anti-GMO Strategies and Frames: Global Trends in the Growth of Resistance to GMOs by Jillian Sherman B.A. in Geography, B.A. in Anthropology, June 2012, The Ohio State University A Thesis submitted to The Faculty of The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts May 18, 2014 Thesis directed by Mona Atia Professor of Geography and International Affairs © Copyright 2014 by Jillian Sherman All rights reserved ii Acknowledgements The author wishes to acknowledge Dr. Mona Atia for acting as a primary advisor on this project and Dr. Marie Price for acting as a secondary advisor and reader. She also wishes to thank The George Washington University Department of Geography for offering the Campbell Summer Research Grant to complete this project. iii Abstract of Thesis Anti-GMO Strategies and Frames: Global Trends in the Growth of Resistance to GMOs Due to the increasing stresses on the agricultural sector that have been caused by factors such as population growth and changing ecological dynamics, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been promoted as a technological answer for problems relating to yield increase, pest resistance, and herbicide tolerance. While this technology has experienced high levels of adoption across the globe, it has also experienced great levels of resistance, and has led to the creation of numerous anti-GMO movements. A discourse analysis of various journals, news articles, and social media outlets was completed in order to look at the spatial patterns associated with the success or failure of the anti-GMO movement across the globe. The prevalence of protest activity in each country was compared to ISAAA data on GMO quantities, crops, and traits per country so that trends in GMO adoption and opposition could be established. This paper considers the role of the actor, as well as the role of the political, legal, and social institutions in place in the countries experiencing GMO growth and resistance. It examines a number of different resistance tactics, paying particular attention to case studies employing the labeling (USA), banning (Mexico), and destruction (France) of GMOs in order to determine why some tactics and geographic locations have experienced success in fighting off GMOs while others have not. Finally, the various framing techniques employed by the movement are addressed within the study so that movement success can be explained within the context of each resistance tactic. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iii Abstract of Thesis .............................................................................................................. iv List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................. viii Chapter 1: Introduction, Literature Review, and Methodology .......................................... 1 Chapter 2: Current State of GMO Growth and Resistance ............................................... 32 Chapter 3: Small-Scale Agriculture and Food Sovereignty Framing ............................... 63 Chapter 4: Labeling: The US Case Study ......................................................................... 77 Chapter 5: Moratoria: The Mexican Case Study ............................................................ 119 Chapter 6: Direct Action: The French Case Study ......................................................... 137 Chapter 7: Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 163 References ....................................................................................................................... 175 Appendix A: Coding and Development of Main Themes .............................................. 194 Appendix B: GMO Growth Patterns for Each Case Study ............................................. 195 Appendix C: Development of Specific GMO Traits and Crops ..................................... 196 Appendix D: Overview of Tactics and Locations Included in this Research ................. 197 v List of Figures Figure 1: Study Areas of Interest ...................................................................................... 29 Figure 2: Global Growth of GMOs Per Country .............................................................. 32 Figure 3: Developing vs. Industrial GM Growth (% of Total) ......................................... 34 Figure 4: Relationship Between Seed, Chemical, and Other Companies ......................... 40 Figure 5: Levels of Resistance in the Anti-GMO Movement ........................................... 62 Figure 6: Three Spheres of Food Sovereignty .................................................................. 74 Figure 7: Adoption of Genetically Engineered Crops in the United States, 1996-2013 ... 84 Figure 8: American States with Proposed Labeling ......................................................... 92 Figure 9: Northeast Labeling Cluster ................................................................................ 94 Figure 10: California Proposition 37 Results .................................................................... 97 Figure 11: Washington Initiative 522 County Results .................................................... 101 Figure 12: Global GE Food Labeling Laws .................................................................... 104 Figure 13: Transgenic Free Territories in Costa Rica......................................................132 Figure 14: Examples of Direct Action from Case Studies and Comparison Cases ........ 153 Figure 15: Schema of Frames, Goals, and Success for Each Case Study ....................... 168 vi List of Tables Table 1: First Year of GMO Commercialization Per Country ......................................... 35 Table 2: Definition of Frames, Goals, and Success for Court Cases ................................ 52 Table 3: Definition of Frames, Goals, and Success for Direct Action ............................. 57 Table 4: Definition of Frames, Goals, and Success for Bans ........................................... 60 Table 5: Use of Framing in Each Country ........................................................................ 64 Table 6: Definition of Frames, Goals, and Success for Labeling ..................................... 81 Table 7: USA Labeling Polls .......................................................................................... 103 Table 8: Frames, Goals, and Success of Moratoria in Mexico ....................................... 126 Table 9: Examples of Crop Destruction Activities in France ......................................... 140 Table 10: Activist Frames, Goals, and Successes in France ........................................... 144 Table 11: Examples of Crop Destruction in Other Countries ......................................... 154 vii List of Acronyms APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service AWOC Agricultural Workers Organization Committee CP Confédération Paysanne EPA Environmental Protection Agency FDA Food and Drug Administration FD&C Act Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act FV Faucheurs Volontaires GE Genetic Engineering GM Genetically Modified GMOs Genetically Modified Organisms HYVs High Yielding Varieties IPC International Planning Committee for Food Sovereignty IPR Intellectual Property Rights ISAAA International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications KRRS Karnataka Rajya Ryota Sangha (Karnataka State Farmers Association) LMO Living Modified Organism LOS Legal Opportunity Structures NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NFWA National Farm Workers Association NIABY Not In Any BackYard NIMB Not In My Body viii NIMBY Not In My BackYard NSM New Social Movement PIP Plant Incorporated Protectant POS Political Opportunity Structure PVPA Plant Variety Protection Act RMT Resource Mobilization Theory TFTs Transgenic Free Territories TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act USDA United States Department of Agriculture WTO World Trade Organization WTP Willingness to Pay ix Chapter 1: Introduction, Literature Review, and Methodology The Green Revolution, and later Gene Revolution, developed at a time when many feared for the fate of global society in the face of exponential population growth. Thomas Malthus said that man is always attempting to use resources at a rate that is “beyond the means of subsistence” (Malthus 2010:4). However, this population expansion is kept from reaching critical numbers due to the existence of checks on population growth such as disease and famine. Paul Ehrlich expanded upon this idea in 1969 by suggesting that if global population rates continued to increase at their current rates, then the world would soon reach the “logical conclusion” of mass starvation (Ehrlich 1969:13). In light of this Malthusian scenario, countries pursued two strategies: reducing population and expanding agricultural yields. Both the Green Revolution and the subsequent Gene Revolution focused on the development of the techniques and technology