12 After the Fall Libya’s Evolving Armed Groups By Brian McQuinn A Working Paper of the Small Arms Survey Copyright Published in Switzerland by the Small Arms Survey © Small Arms Survey, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva 2012 First published in October 2012 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the Small Arms Survey, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organi- zation. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Publications Manager, Small Arms Survey, at the address below. Small Arms Survey Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies 47 Avenue Blanc, 1202 Geneva, Switzerland Copyedited by Tania Inowlocki Proofread by Donald Strachan Cartography by MAPgrafix Typeset in Optima and Palatino by Richard Jones ([email protected]), Exile: Design & Editorial Services Printed in France by GPS ISBN 978-2-9700816-6-1 2 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 3 About the Small Arms Survey The Small Arms Survey is an independent research project located at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, Swit- zerland. Established in 1999, the project is supported by the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs and current contributions from the Governments of Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The Survey is grateful for past support received from the Governments of France, New Zealand, and Spain. The Survey also wishes to acknowledge the financial assistance it has received over the years from different United Nations agencies, programmes, and institutes. The objectives of the Small Arms Survey are: to be the principal source of public information on all aspects of small arms and armed violence; to serve as a resource centre for governments, policy-makers, researchers, and activ- ists; to monitor national and international initiatives (governmental and non- governmental) on small arms; to support efforts to address the effects of small arms proliferation and misuse; and to act as a clearinghouse for the sharing of information and the dissemination of best practices. The Survey also spon- sors field research and information-gathering efforts, especially in affected states and regions. The project has an international staff with expertise in security studies, political science, law, economics, development studies, sociology, and criminology, and collaborates with a network of researchers, partner institutions, non-governmental organizations, and governments in more than 50 countries. Small Arms Survey Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies 47 Avenue Blanc, 1202 Geneva, Switzerland p +41 22 908 5777 f +41 22 732 2738 e [email protected] w www.smallarmssurvey.org 2 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 3 Contents List of boxes, tables, and illustrations .................................................................................................................................... 5 List of abbreviations .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 6 About the author .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10 Background 10 Research objectives and findings 12 Methodology 13 Report structure 13 Typology of non-state armed groups in Libya ................................................................................................. 15 Three defining characteristics 15 The four types of armed group 17 The development of armed groups in Misrata ................................................................................................. 33 Stage 1: initial success 34 Stage 2: the occupation of Tripoli Street 37 Stage 3: the emergence of brigade structures 39 Weapons proliferation .................................................................................................................................................................................... 43 Small arms and light weapons 43 Conventional weapons 48 Internal regulation 49 Inspection visits 50 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56 Endnotes .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 58 Bibliography ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 62 4 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 5 List of boxes, tables, and illustrations Map Libya, 2012 Box 1 Security provision during municipal elections in Misrata Box 2 Controlling the al-Swehli Brigade Table 1 The 236 brigades by size of membership Table 2 Anti-aircraft machine guns in Misrata based on brigade size Figure 1 MoI and MMC document assigning brigades responsibility for spe- cific polling stations and checkpoints Figure 2 Weapon sign-out form and pledge of good conduct Figure 3 Number of small arms in Misrata during the first and second stages of fighting, 2011 Figure 4 Number of combatants in Misrata Figure 5 Number of small arms vs. number of fighters, 2011 Figure 6 Assault rifle individually labelled with brigade member’s name 4 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 5 List of abbreviations MMC Misratan Military Council MoD Ministry of Defence MoI Ministry of Interior MUR Misratan Union of Revolutionaries NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NTC National Transitional Council RPG Rocket-propelled grenade (launcher) 6 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 7 About the author Brian McQuinn is a research associate at the Geneva-based Centre on Conflict, Development and Peacebuilding and a doctoral candidate at the University of Oxford. His research investigates how organizational rituals shape the social structure and cohesion of non-state armed groups in civil wars. Prior to return- ing to academia, he worked as a dialogue specialist for more than 14 years in conflict-affected countries, with the UN and other international organizations. He serves as a lead trainer for the UN System Staff College course on applied conflict analysis for prevention and peacebuilding. 6 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 7 Acknowledgements The author is grateful to the Berghof Foundation for its generous support of his doctoral fieldwork, which serves as the basis for this report. He is particu- larly thankful for the intellectual support provided by Véronique Dudouet at Berghof Conflict Research. He is indebted to Mohamed Amer, Peter Cole, Nicolas Florquin, Tania Inowlocki, Tanja Kuchenmüller, Ingrid Pederson, and Harvey Whitehouse for their invaluable contributions; he also extends special thanks to three anonymous reviewers for their insight. The German Ministry of Foreign Affairs funded the field research on arms control, publication of the report, and translation into Arabic. The author dedicates this report to Prof. John Darby for his humble bril- liance and unwavering support. He is missed. This report is also dedicated to the journalists and photographers who lost their lives bringing us images and stories of the Libyan uprising. They approached their work with dedication and professionalism, demonstrating integrity and bravery amid violence. 8 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 9 Map Libya, 2012 ITALY K Sicily Tunis GREECE M e d TUNISIA i t e r r a n e a n S e a Tripoli Zlitan Zuwara Naima ReghdReghdalinalin Dafniya N al-Jumail afusa Misrata M Benghazi Zintan ts Tawergha Bani Sirte Walid LIBYA EGYPT Sabha Kufra ALGERIA NIGER International boundary National capital CHAD Regional town Other settlement 0 300km 8 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 9 Introduction Background The ‘February 17th Revolution’—as it is called in Libya—was preceded by small- scale protests throughout the country. Then, on 17 February 2011, mass dem- onstrations in Benghazi, Libya’s second-largest city, ushered in the uprising that would attract international media attention. In response, the government of Col. Muammar Qaddafi began a brutal crackdown that was reminiscent of the bloody tactics of the 1980s (Kirkpatrick, 2011). Demonstrations quickly devolved into