Ahıska Turks and Koreans in Post-Soviet Kazakstan and Uzbekistan: The Making of Diaspora Identity and Culture A Ph.D Dissertation By Chong Jin OH Department of International Relations Bilkent University Ankara December 2006 To my Mom and Wife… 어머님과 아내에게… Ahıska Turks and Koreans in Post-Soviet Kazakstan and Uzbekistan: The Making of Diaspora Identity and Culture The Institute of Economics and Social Sciences of Bilkent University by Chong Jin OH In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS BİLKENT UNIVERSITY ANKARA December 2006 I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations --------------------------------- Associate Professor Dr. Hakan Kırımlı Supervisor I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations --------------------------------- Assistant Professor Dr. Hasan Ünal Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations --------------------------------- Assistant Professor Dr. Sean McMeekin Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations --------------------------------- Assistant Professor Dr. Ayşegül Aydıngün Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations --------------------------------- Assistant Professor Dr. Mitat Çelikpala Examining Committee Member Approval of the Institute of Economics and Social Sciences ---------------------------------- Prof. Dr. Erdal Erel Director ABSTRACT Ahıska Turks and Koreans in Post-Soviet Kazakstan and Uzbekistan: The Making of Diaspora Identity and Culture Chong Jin OH Ph.D., Department of International Relations Supervisor : Associate Professor Hakan Kırımlı December 2006 After the collapse of the Soviet Union, all of the newly independent governments in Central Asia aimed at nationalizing or indigenizing the territories under their control and rectifying what many saw as decades of dominance by foreign actors. These states made great efforts to undertake various nation-building projects. For individuals in many nationalizing states in Central Asia, knowledge of the titular language became increasingly important in order to obtain, maintain and advance their career and position in the society. In other words, members of the titular nations had somewhere to go and settle after the collapse of the Soviet Union, but the non-titular groups, which included group such as the Jews, the Volga Germans, the Koreans, the Crimean Tatars, Ahıska Turks, had nowhere to go. These diasporas found themselves in the middle of nowhere. These ethnic minorities or diasporas are, perhaps, the main losers in the nation-building process in post-Soviet Central Asia due to their powerlessness and vulnerability. As peoples deported by the Soviet regime, these groups were forced to migrate against their will. By using Korean and Ahıska Turkish diasporas in Uzbekistan and Kazakstan as cases, this study examines, to some extent, how diasporas are influenced by nationalizing iii states in Central Asia. It attempts to inquire into the factors which influence the existence, nature and intensity of ethno-nationalism in the diasporas’ context. Therefore, it analyzes both the existence and transmission of ethno-nationalism between the diasporas’ settings and homelands and specifically will deal with the transmission of ethno-nationalist sentiments across diasporas’ generations. Above all, the task of this inquiry is to examine the sources of diversity within diaspora relations and to move toward an analysis of the patterns of interaction among trans-border ethnic groups, their traditional ethnic homelands, and the states in which they reside. The comparative content of this investigation will show considerable variations in these practices in different settings and groupings. iv ÖZET Sovyetler Birliği Sonrası Kazakistan ve Özbekistan’da Ahıska Türkleri ve Koreliler: Diaspora Kimlik ve Kültürünün İnşası Chong Jin OH Doktora, Uluslararası İlşkiler Bölümü Tez Danışmanı : Doçent Dr. Hakan Kırımlı Aralık 2006 Sovyetler Birliği'nin dağılmasının ardından Orta Asya'da yeni kurulan bağımsız devletler kontrolleri altındaki toprakları millîleştirmeyi ya da yerelleştirmeyi ve böylelikle onlarca yıl devam ettiğini düşündükleri yabancı egemenliğini temizlemeyi amaçladılar. Bu devletler sayısız millet inşâsı projesinde büyük gayretler harcadılar. Bu sebeple Orta Asya'nın millîleşen pek çok devletinde egemen toplumun dilini bilmek kariyer ve makam sahibi olmak için gittikçe daha da önem kazandı. Diğer bir deyişle, 'titüler' bir devletin üyesi olanların gidecek bir yerleri var iken, Yahudiler, Volga Almanları, Koreliler, Kırım Tatarları ve Ahıska Türkleri için durum farklıydı. Bu diasporalar kendilerini yersiz yurtsuz buldular. Belki de bu etnik gruplar ve diasporalar zayıf ve hassas vaziyetlerinden dolayı Sovyetler sonrası Orta Asya'daki milllet inşâsı sürecinin asıl kaybedenleri oldular. Bu çalışma, Özbekistan ve Kazakistan'daki Ahıska Türkü ve Kore diasporalarını konu alarak bir ölçüde diasporaların millîleşen Orta Asya devletlerinden nasıl etkilendiğini incelemekte ve diasporalar bağlamında etno- milliyetçiliğin varlığını, tabiatını ve yoğunluğunu etkileyen faktörleri irdelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu sebeple, bir taraftan diasporaların yaşadıkları ülke ve v anavatanları arasında etno-milliyetçiliğin varlığını ve geçişini analiz ederken, özellikle etno-milliyetçi duyguların diaspora nesillerinde tevarüsü üzerinde duracaktır. Herşeyden öte, bu araştırmanın amacı diaspora ilişkileri arasındaki farklılaşmanın kaynaklarının incelenmesi ve sınır ötesi etnik gruplar, bunların geleneksel etnik vatanları ve ikâmet ettikleri devletler arasındaki etkileşim şekillerinin analizi olacaktır. Bu araştırmanın içeriği farklı mekân ve topluluklardaki pratiklerde önemli değişmeler olduğunu göstermektedir. vi ACKNOWLEGEMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the generous assistance and encouragement of many people. I have been privileged to have Professor Hakan Kırımlı as my advisor during my four-and-a-half year stay in Bilkent, Ankara. It was Professor Hakan Kırımlı who offered every kind of support during these years, well beyond any formal duties. Likewise, he guided this work from its very inception allowing me to benefit from his vast knowledge of the Turkic and ethnic issues in Eurasia continent, and from his huge library. In times of difficulties in building my argumentation, my talks with him enabled me to focus my attention on the right direction without diverging from the main idea of the dissertation. No doubt, he inspired me with his erudition, encyclopedic knowledge and kind words. He has contributed greatly to my understanding and outlook of the Turkic and ethnic issues. Also, I would like to extend my thanks to Prof. Hasan Ünal, Prof. Sean McMeekin, Prof. Ayşegül Aydıngün and Prof. Mitat Çelikpala, who are included in the examining committee, for their useful insights into my argumentation. Without their suggestions, I would not be able to improve the academic quality of my dissertation as it is now. I am especially indebted to my friends and colleagues, Dr. Hasan Ali Karasar, Ibrahim Körmezli, Berat Yıldız who devoted their precious time to help me with every subject that I faced in Bilkent University. Last, but of course not least, my parent, Sukkyo Oh and Hyojee Ahn, and my wife Seonok Kim deserve the greatest credit for the completion of this dissertation. It was my parent’s concern and care which allowed me to continue my studies, and they never refrained from any sacrifice for this purpose. Seonok was always my best and closest assistant and friend who helped me to get over every hardship that I confronted during my study in Turkey. She has always tolerated when I had to spend a great amount of time in researching and writing my dissertation. Without her understanding and efforts to create the most comfortable environment for me, I would most probably have been lost among numerous books and articles. Jua Oh, my 19 months daughter who was born during my study in Bilkent University, gave spiritual support by motivating my concentration to finish my work in time. To all of them, I take the pleasure of dedicating this work. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ------------------------------------------------------------------p.iii ÖZET -------------------------------------------------------------------p.v AKNOWLEGEMENTS -------------------------------------------------------p.vii TABLE OF CONTENTS -------------------------------------------------------p.viii LIST OF TABLES --------------------------------------------------------p.xi LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES ---------------------------------------------p.xiii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY -------p.1 Objectives and Scope of the Study Case Selection Research Questions Plan of the Dissertation Methodology Literature Review CHAPTER