Social media: Instigating factor or appropriated tool? Assessing the level of agency ascribed to the use of social media for the organization and coordination of the 25th January Revolution in Egypt Master thesis Author: Ardan Kockelkoren Student number: S4159519 University: Radboud University Nijmegen Date: 27-06-2013 Supervisors dr. H.W. Bomert and dr. G.M. Millar 1 Abstract This research addresses the perceived importance of the use of social media for the organization of the 25th of January, 2011, revolution in Egypt. Individual face-to-face semi-structured interviews and face-to-face collected written surveys were the main research methods used to acquire the research data. This research shows that there is a relationship between the use of social media and the way in which the revolution has unfolded in Egypt. Social media is perceived to have made the revolutionary process unfold in a faster pace and the initial organization and coordination trough the social media platforms have made the revolution a leaderless revolution. Social media played a significant role but it should not be seen as an instigating factor, however. The role that the social media platforms played, must be seen in a wider framework of interdependent processes and factors that are also perceived as important to the unfolding of the revolutionary process by the Egyptian people. Significant differences have been found between different population groups in how important they perceive the use of social media for the organization of the revolution. Egyptians with an university degree, who have an internet connection at home and who have a Facebook account, find the use of social media significantly more important for the organization of the revolution in Egypt than others. The people using social media perceive the use of social media as more important because they were more aware of how the use of these platforms contributed to the revolution. In addition, those people who didn't use social media often perceive the use of social media as less important because they didn't need the platforms to communicate and organize. The agency of the revolution lies with the Egyptian people, who transformed the social media platforms, that are designed for slacktivistic activities, into a tool used by the activists for political purposes. The news organizations represented the revolution in Egypt as a ‘Facebook revolution’ because these organizations often retrieved their own information from social media, because it was catchy, because it was an easy story to transfer to the audience and because it overshadows the Western historical role in supporting the oppressive regime. 2 Samenvatting Dit onderzoek richt zich op de vraag hoe belangrijk het gebruik van sociale media ervaren wordt voor het organiseren van de Egyptische revolutie van 2011. Om de benodigde data te verzamelen voor dit onderzoek zijn semigestructureerde diepte-interviews gedaan. Ook zijn er enquêtes verzameld. Dit onderzoek toont aan dat er een verband bestaan tussen het gebruik van sociale media en de manier waarop de revolutie in Egypte zich heeft voltrokken. Het gebruik van sociale media heeft ervoor gezorgd dat de revolutie zich sneller heeft voltrokken. Door gebruik te maken van sociale media voor de organisatie en coördinatie wordt de revolutie gezien als een revolutie zonder leider. De sociale media speelden een significante rol, maar sociale media moeten niet gezien worden als een initiërende factor. De rol van sociale media in de revolutie moet gezien worden in een breder raamwerk van onderling afhankelijk processen en factoren die als belangrijk ervaren worden door de Egyptenaren voor het verloop van de revolutie. Er zijn significante verschillen aangetoond tussen verschillende bevolkingsgroepen, in het belang dat zij toeschrijven aan het gebruik van sociale media voor de organisatie van de revolutie. Egyptenaren met een universitair diploma, die thuis internettoegang hebben en die een Facebook-account hebben, schatten het belang van het gebruik van sociale media hoger in dan anderen. De mensen die sociale media gebruiken schatten het belang van sociale media hoger in, omdat zij zich bewuster zijn van de manier waarop het gebruik van sociale media heeft bijgedragen aan de organisatie van de revolutie. Bovendien ervaren mensen die geen sociale media gebruiken het gebruik ervan als minder belangrijk, omdat zij zelf deze manier van communiceren niet nodig hadden om met elkaar te kunnen communiceren en zich te organiseren. Het organiserend vermogen voor de revolutie ligt bij de Egyptenaren, die de sociale mediaplatformen, die zijn ontworpen voor vrijetijdsbesteding, naar hun hand hebben gezet en hebben gebruikt voor politieke doeleinden. De nieuwsorganisaties representeerden de revolutie in Egypte als een ‘Facebook revolutie’, omdat deze organisaties sociale media als een bron gebruikten, omdat het interessant en boeiend klinkt, omdat dit verhaal makkelijk over te brengen was naar het publiek en omdat men hierdoor niet hoeft stil te staan bij de rol van het Westen in het steunen van Mubarak’s regime. 3 Acknowledgments First, I would like to thank my thesis supervisors, Gearoid Millar and Bert Bomert, for their valuable knowledge, inspiration and guidance. I would like to thank Gearoid Millar for his guidance when writing the research proposal and for supporting and guiding me when acquiring the research data in Cairo. I would like to thank Bert Bomert for his guidance and supervision throughout the writing process of this research. The meetings have been essential in developing a systematic and structured workflow and his comments and advice were crucial in shaping this research paper. I would also like to express my appreciation to my collegeagues from my internship organization in Cairo for their understanding of the local circumstances in Cairo and for their efforts in the data collection process. Finally, I would like to thank the respondents of the interviews and the questionnaires for taking the time and energy to participate in this study and to share their insights. The Egyptian people who I got to know during my research period have been extremely helpful and kind. 4 Table of contents Page Nr: Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………2 Samenvatting…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3 Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………4 Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5 1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7 1.1 Background……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7 1.2 Problem definition………………………………………………………………………………………………8 1.3 Research objectives……………………………………………………………………………………………8 1.4 Research questions………………………………………………………………………………………………9 1.5 Research relevance………………………………………………………………………………………………10 1.6 Scope and limitations………………………………………………………………………………………11 1.7 Thesis outline…………………………………………………………………………………………………………12 2. Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………………………………………………………13 2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………13 2.2 Media concepts…………………………………………………………………………………………………………13 2.3 Influence on societies……………………………………………………………………………………14 2.4 Implications for the Egyptian case……………………………………………………17 3. Methodology……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………19 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………19 3.2 Mixed method………………………………………………………………………………………………………………19 3.3 Interviews……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………20 3.4 Surveys……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………21 3.5 Data analyses……………………………………………………………………………………………………………22 3.6 Research questions answering strategy …………………………………………23 3.7 Reflection……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………23 4. Setting the stage: The 25th of January Revolution………………………25 5. The influence of social media……………………………………………………………………………29 5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………29 5.2 IT revolution……………………………………………………………………………………………………………29 5.3 Impact of IT on society…………………………………………………………………………………31 5.4 Khaled Said: The case that shook society……………………………………32 5.5 Coordination and reorganization during January 25……………34 5.6 Citizen journalism………………………………………………………………………………………………36 5.7 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………37 6. Social media in a wider framework…………………………………………………………………39 6.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………39 6.2 Public discontent…………………………………………………………………………………………………39 6.2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………39 6.2.2 Economic inequality………………………………………………………………………………39 6.2.3 Corruption………………………………………………………………………………………………………42 6.2.4 Repression and abuse……………………………………………………………………………43 5 Table of contents Page Nr: 6.3 Grassroots activism……………………………………………………………………………………………45 6.3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………45 6.3.2 Kefaya: The first protest movement………………………………………45 6.3.3 The labor strikes of El-Mahalla El-Kubra………………………47 6.3.4 The 6th of April Movement………………………………………………………………47 6.4 Connectivity, organization and coordination……………………………49 6.4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………49 6.4.2 Connectivity…………………………………………………………………………………………………49 6.4.3 Television………………………………………………………………………………………………………50 6.4.4 Transference of the Tunisian Revolution…………………………50 6.4.5 Television during the revolution……………………………………………51 6.4.6 Traditional networks on the ground………………………………………53 6.4.7 Communications outage…………………………………………………………………………56 6.4.8 Muslim Brotherhood involvement…………………………………………………57