Embrassimilating the Other Anglicisms in Japanese – A Cultural Pragmatic Model for Loanword Integration Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades an der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz eingereicht von Mag.phil. Johannes SCHERLING am Institut für Anglistik Erstbegutachter: Ao. Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr.phil. Bernhard KETTEMANN Zweitbegutachter: Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr.phil. Walter HÖLBLING 2009 Meinen lieben Eltern und Doris, Josi, Christian und Florian sowie meiner geliebten Eri The dream: to know a foreign (alien) language and yet not to understand it: to perceive the difference in it without that difference ever being recuperated by the superficial society of discourse, communication or vulgarity; to know, positively refracted in a new language, the impossibilities of our own; to learn the systematics of the inconceivable; to undo our own “reality” under the effect of other formulations, other syntaxes; to discover certain unsuspected positions of the subject in the utterance, to displace the subject’s topology; in a word, to descend into the untranslatable, to experience its shock without ever muffling it, until everything Occidental in us totters and the rights of the “father tongue” vacillate […] - Roland Barthes, Empire of Signs Table of Contents Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………. i Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….. 1 1. Japan and its Contact Tradition …………………………………………………. .11 1.1. On the origins of the Japanese language ……………………………………..... 11 1.2. First contact, lasting impact –the Chinese come to visit ……………………..... 12 1.3. An interlude – the arrival and expulsion of the Europeans ……………………. 14 1.4. The Meiji Restoration and beyond: English takes over ……………………….. 15 1.5. English becomes the enemy …………………………………………………… 20 1.6. The postwar linguistic landscape ……………………………………………… 22 2. Changing Attitudes – Between Infatuation and Nationalism ……………………. 24 2.1. Deep Impact – the role of English before and during the Restoration ………… 24 2.2. Reasoning defeat – Shiga Naoya revisits Mori Arinori ……………………….. 26 2.3. Nihonjinron – the purity theory ………………………………………………... 29 2.4. A peek around the globe: language policies in Germany, Austria and France… 35 2.5. Political and social realities and why a Loi Toubon would not work in Japan ... 38 3. Creation, Use, and Presence of Anglicisms in Japanese ………………………… 41 3.1. The continuous boom ………………………………………………………….. 41 3.2. Loanword, English-inspired vocabulary item, or Made-in-Japan English? …… 43 3.3. Lexical penetration …………………………………………………………….. 45 3.4. Phonetic features ………………………………………………………………. 47 3.5. Morphological features ………………………………………………………... 48 3.5.1. Clipping ……………………………………………………………………… 48 3.5.2. Blends ………………………………………………………………………... 49 3.5.3. Verbalization ………………………………………………………………… 52 3.5.4. Hybrids ………………………………………………………………………. 52 3.5.5. On Japanese word formation rules …………………………………………... 53 3.6. Syntactic impact ……………………………………………………………….. 54 3.7. Semantic change ………………………………………………………………. 56 3.8. Creative uses of Anglicisms …………………………………………………….58 3.9. Popular criticism ………………………………………………………………. 61 3.9.1. Inconsistent loanword spelling and pronunciation …………………………... 61 3.9.2. Lexical inconsistencies ……………...…………………………………..…… 63 4.Functions of Anglicisms …………………………………………………………. 66 4.1. The difficulty of creating a comprehensive model ……………………………. 66 4.2. The core functions of Japanese loanwords ……………………………………. 67 4.2.1. Import of new concepts and ideas …………………………………………… 68 4.2.2. Status upgrading ……………………………………………………………... 69 4.2.3. Westernization ……………………………………………………………….. 70 4.2.4. Fashion ………………………………………………………………………. 72 4.2.5. Image and prestige…………………………………………………………… 73 4.2.6. Euphemisms …………………………………………………………………. 75 4.2.7. Obscuring ……………………………………………………………………. 76 4.2.8. Stylistic use ………………………………………………………………….. 78 4.2.9. Avoiding gender-related speech-restrictions ………………………………… 78 4.3. Summary ………………………………………………………………………. 79 5. Difficulties in Comprehension and Use ………………………………………..... 81 5.1. Mistaken usage or utilizing mistakes ………………………………………….. 81 5.2. A stranger in one’s own land – problems in loanword comprehension ……….. 84 5.2.1. Loanwords and foreign words in movie titles ……………………………….. 88 5.3. Facing the challenge …………………………………………………………… 92 6. Loanword-(R)Evolution – A Diachronic View of Loanword Presence ………… 95 6.1. A few introductory remarks …………………………………………………… 95 6.2. The Kotonoha project – Japan’s first major step into Corpus Linguistics …….. 96 6.3. Diachronic data ………………………………………………………………... 97 6.3.1. Diachronic comparison of magazines from 1956 and 1994 ……………….. 100 6.3.2. An overview of loanword numbers in Japanese written media ……………. 104 6.3.3. On television discourse …………………………………………………….. 105 6.3.4. Loanwords in scientific and technological discourse ………………………. 110 6.3.5. Stagnation or merely the calm before another storm? ……………………… 111 6.4. On the other side of the world – statistics from Austrian and German media ...113 6.4.1. Examples from Austrian newspapers and magazines ……………………… 113 6.4.2. Examples from German newspapers and television ……………………….. 116 6.5. Comparing numbers ………………………………………………………….. 117 7. Behind the Numbers …………………………………………………………… 123 7.1. What lies beneath …………………………………………………………….. 123 7.2. Word orders ………………………………………………………………….. 123 7.2.1. Content-dependent inclinations ……………………………………………. 125 7.2.2. The big picture ……………………………………………………………... 136 7.2.3. Comparative view ………………………………………………………….. 145 7.2.4. Diachronic peek ……………………………………………………………. 149 7.3. (No) Entry – On the extent of naturalization of frequently used loanwords in the media ……………………………………………………………………… 152 7.3.1. White Papers ……………………………………………………………….. 153 7.3.2. Public Information Bulletins ……………………………………………….. 156 7.3.3. Mainichi newspaper ………………………………………………………... 158 7.3.4. Magazines …………………………………………………………………... 160 7.3.5. Television …………………………………………………………………... 163 7.4. Commonalities ……………………………………………………………….. 166 8. From Alienation to Integration – Recent Discussions in Theory and Practice … 168 8.1. How to make loans look like loans …………………………………………... 168 8.2. The Guide for Paraphrasing Loanwords …………………………………….. 172 8.2.1. The bone of contention – surveys on loanword awareness ………………… 174 8.2.2. Paraphrasing problems ……………………………………………………... 178 8.3. Three steps to integrating loanwords ………………………………………… 180 8.4. Spreading the word – newspaper policies with regards to loanwords ……….. 183 8.4.1. On the general function of newspapers in the distribution of loanwords ….. 183 8.4.2. Example: The Asahi Shinbun Newspaper ………………………………….. 183 8.4.3. Other comparative examples ……………………………………………….. 185 8.5. Conclusive remarks …………………………………………………………... 186 9. Through Jenglish to English – On the Influence of (Pseudo) Loanwords on Japanese EFL learners …………………………………………………….. 188 9.1. How English is Jenglish? …………………………………………………….. 188 9.2. Anglicisms as an international problem? …………………………………….. 190 9.2.1. When Anglicisms become English ………………………………………… 192 9.3. Through the mirror – comprehension of Japanese pseudo-Anglicisms by American students ………………………………………………………… 194 10. Meaning, Context, and Related Semantic Issues ……………………………... 200 10.1. Naturalistic meaning ………………………………………………………... 200 10.2. Meaning through use ………………………………………………………... 201 10.3. In good company – opinions on context ……………………………………. 203 10.4. New words in context ………………………………………………………. 208 10.5. Elusive meaning – circumventing conventions …………………………….. 210 10.6. Synonymy or non-synonymy? Differences of loans and ‘natives’ in context..211 11. Testing Theories – Loanword Comprehension and Context ………………….. 214 11.1. Research questions ………………………………………………………….. 214 11.2. Survey basics and methodology …………………………………………….. 215 11.2.1. Target audience and sampling method .…………………………………… 215 11.2.2. Survey goal ………………………………………………………………... 215 11.2.3. Survey design ……………………………………………………………... 215 11.3. Procedure ……………………………………………………………………. 216 11.3.1. Choice of loanwords ………………………………………………………. 216 11.3.2. Narrowing down …………………………………………………………... 216 11.3.3. Word list and explanation ………………………………………………… 217 11.3.4. Drafting the survey ………………………………………………………... 219 11.3.4.1. Personal Data ……………………………………………………………. 220 11.3.4.2. Part I …………………………………………………………………….. 220 11.3.4.3. Part II ……………………………………………………………………. 221 11.3.5. Piloting and reviewing ……………………………………………………. 223 11.4. Conducting the survey ………………………………………………………. 224 11.4.1. Recruiting …………………………………………………………………. 224 11.4.2. Number of participants ……………………………………………………. 225 11.4.3. Testing conditions and procedures ………………………………………... 225 11.4.4. Dates ………………………………………………………………………. 226 11.4.5. Final Changes ……………………………………………………………... 226 11.5. Survey results ……………………………………………………………….. 227 11.5.1 Nanzan University …………………………………………………………. 228 11.5.1.1. English students (3rd and 4th year) ………………………………………. 228 11.5.1.1.1. Comparison of correct answers part one and two …………………...... 228 11.5.1.1.2. Developments ………………………………………………………… 229 11.5.1.2. Non-English students …………………………………………………… 232 11.5.1.2.1. Comparison of correct answers part one and two …………………….. 232 11.5.1.2.2. Developments …………………………………………………………. 233 11.5.2. Kobe University …………………………………………………………... 235 11.5.2.1. English students ………………………………………………………… 235 11.5.2.1.1. Comparison of correct answers part one and two …………………….. 236 11.5.2.1.2. Developments ………………………………………………………… 236 11.5.2.2. Non-English students …………………………………………………… 239 11.5.2.2.1. Comparison of correct