City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects CUNY Graduate Center 9-2020 Stalking and Attachment Theory: Causes and Management Zoe Turner The Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/4048 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] STALKING AND ATTACHMENT THEORY: CAUSES AND MANAGEMENT by ZOE TURNER A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2020 i © 2020 ZOE TURNER All Rights Reserved ii Stalking and Attachment Theory: Causes and Management by Zoe Turner This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in Psychology in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. _______________ ____________________________________ Date Phil Yanos, Ph.D. Chair of Examining Committee _______________ ____________________________________ Date Richard Bodner, Ph.D. Executive Officer Supervisory Committee: Elizabeth Jeglic, Ph.D. Louis Schlesinger, Ph.D. Philip Erdberg, Ph.D. Ali Khadivi, Ph.D. THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii ABSTRACT Stalking and Attachment Theory: Causes and Management by Zoe Turner Advisor: Phil Yanos, Ph.D. Stalking is an issue that has drawn increasing attention over the past four decades. Approximately 6 million Americans report being the victims of stalking each year. The psychological and physical effects of stalking can be severe, ranging from anxiety and depression to physical harm and even death. With the rise of technology and social media, cyberstalking has become an additional problem in recent years. It is vital to understand the root causes of stalking behavior from a psychological perspective in order to create appropriate management and treatment plans. The current research investigates the role of attachment theory in stalking. Within the field of psychology, there are several different attachment styles, including secure, insecure avoidant, and insecure ambivalent. The central hypothesis guiding this research is that stalking is closely associated with an insecure attachment style. Data was collected from 3 samples (n = 679) to assess the link between stalking behavior and attachment styles. The results indicated that higher rates of cyberstalking are associated with insecure anxious attachment, but not avoidant attachment. This result was seen across each sample and, as hypothesized, the most common type of cyberstalker was an ex-intimate seeking reconciliation. These insecure attachments are formed during childhood and persist into adulthood, which ultimately have the potential to impact the ability to establish and maintain healthy relationships. Based on these findings, further research is recommended in the areas of attachment and cyberstalking. iv Table of Contents Abstract 3 Chapter 1: Introduction 4 1.1 A Brief History of Stalking 5 1.2 Stalking Laws 6 1.3 Prevalence in the United States 7 1.4 What Constitutes Stalking? 9 1.5 Legal Definitions 11 1.6 Psychological Definitions 13 Chapter 2: Literature Review 15 2.1 Psychological Theories of Stalking 15 2.1.1 Attachment Theory 15 2.1.2 Relational Goal Pursuit Theory 18 2.2 Physiological Factors Associated with Stalking 20 2.3 Stalking Typologies 21 2.3.1 Stalking Typology Related to Psychiatric Diagnosis 21 2.3.2 Stalking Typology and Relationship to Victim 23 2.3.3 Typology for the Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry 24 2.3.3.1 The Rejected Stalker 25 2.3.3.2 The Resentful Stalker 25 2.3.3.3 The Stranger Stalker: Intimacy Seekers 25 2.3.3.4 The Incompetent Suitor 26 2.3.3.5 The Predatory Stalker 27 2.4 Ex-Intimate Partner Stalking 28 2.4.1 Violence and Ex-Intimate Partner Stalkers 28 2.5 Management of Stalking 32 2.6 Risk Factors 32 2.6.1 Psychopathology 34 2.6.2 Psychopathy 35 2.7 Assessment of Stalkers 36 2.7.1 Stalking Assessment and Management (SAM) 37 2.7.2 The Stalking Risk Profile (SRP) 38 2.7.3 Self-Report Measures 39 2.8 Perception of Stalking 41 2.8.1 Police Involvement 43 2.8.2 Court Disposition in Stalking Cases 44 2.9 Recidivism and the Stalker 46 2.10 Cyberstalking 46 Chapter 3: Methodology 52 3.1 Research Aims and Hypotheses 52 3.2 Method 54 3.2.1 Participants 54 3.2.2 Procedure 55 3.3.3 Measures 55 Chapter 4: Results 58 Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion 84 References 89 v CHAPTER ONE Introduction Stalking is a significant problem in the United States. The National Crime Victimization Survey estimated that in a single year, 5,857,030 Americans were victims of stalking and harassment (Baum, Catalano, Rand & Rose, 2009). The effects of stalking are also well- documented; over half of the sample cited above changed their behaviors predominantly due to fear. Those who identified as being stalked changed their daily activities (21.6%), stayed with family and friends (18.1%), installed caller ID (18.1%), and changed their locks/got a security system (13.2%). In addition, 6% of stalking victims obtained pepper spray and 2.9% got a gun. 41% of female and 36.8% of male stalking victims reported the stalking behavior to the police. Psychopathology has also been studied in victims of stalking and harassment. Pathé and Mullen (1997) found that heightened anxiety (83%), chronic sleep disturbance (74%), and appetite disturbance (48%) were common among victims. In addition, a further 24% of their sample reported that they attempted suicide or seriously considered it. Other studies have found similar rates (Brewster, 1997; Hall, 1998). The literature shows a clear problem – rates of stalking and harassment are high and the effects on victims is significant. To qualify as stalking, three elements are required to occur in tandem. These elements specify that the stalking behavior needs to be directed at one specific person, that the behavior intends to place that person in fear for his or her safety, and that the behavior places that person in fear for their safety (Owens, 2016). In addition, to be classified as stalking, the behavior must occur more than once. However, most research studies include harassment behaviors in their samples. Consequently, when designing measures researchers typically include both stalking and harassment behaviors in their criteria. 1 Stalkers utilize multiple methods to stalk and harass their victims. These include sending letters or emails, spreading rumors, following, showing up at their home or work, sending gifts, and threatening or even assaulting their victims. In addition, technological advances and social media have given stalkers additional ways to stalk and harass their victims, leading to a rise in cyberstalking. 1.1 A Brief History of Stalking The word “stalk” has a long history. In Old English (circa 1500), the expression meant to walk cautiously or stealthily and was initially intended to describe hunting behaviors (OED, 2017). However, the term stalking, as it relates to today’s understanding, is a relatively new concept that has only been in use in recent decades. For example, in 1975, a rapist described the excitement he experienced while stalking his victims (Footlick, Howard, Camper, Sciolino, & Smith, 1975). Further, in 1985, the serial killer Richard Ramirez was labelled “the night stalker” by Los Angeles newspapers (Kamir, 2001). It was also during this time that our current understanding of stalking as a construct developed. The expression was first mentioned in the literature in 1990 and was used to describe an obsessive harasser (Mullen, Pathe, & Purcell, 2009). However, although the use of the word is relatively new, the behaviors now called stalking have likely been in existence since time immemorial. Stalking first came into the spotlight with the publication of several high-profile stalking cases. One infamous case involved the actress and model Rebecca Schaffer, who was brutally murdered by Robert John Bardo (Gilligan, 1992). Bardo had been stalking Schaffer for three years. On July 18, 1989, Bardo went to Schaffer’s home in California and fatally shot her in the chest. In 1982, Theresa Saldana was also the victim of stalking and a subsequent attack (Markman & LaBrecque, 1994). Arthur Richard Jackson was an obsessed fan from Scotland who 2 illegally entered the USA to stalk and kill Saldana. He believed that when he was executed for her murder, they would be together in the afterlife. Jackson initially hired a private detective to find Saldana’s address. He then waited outside her home and when she came out, he stabbed her ten times. Saldana survived, but her attack, the death of Schaffer, and other similar cases outraged the public, which prompted political action and consequently led to the first anti- stalking laws. 1.2 Stalking Laws California was the first state to adopt anti-stalking laws, which officially criminalized stalking in 1990 via California Penal Code §646.9. The law stated that any person who willfully, maliciously, and repeatedly follows or willfully and maliciously harasses another person and who makes a credible threat with the intent to place that person in reasonable fear for his or her safety, or the safety of his or her immediate family is guilty of the crime of stalking. Other states followed suit. In 1992, thirty states enacted or amended existing laws to address stalking behaviors, and by 1993, an additional nineteen jurisdictions had passed anti-stalking laws (Mullen, Pathe, & Purcell, 2009). Stalking behavior is also addressed via criminal harassment laws. For example, many parts of the Western world, including Canada, enacted criminal harassment laws to specifically address stalking.