Understanding ‘Work’ in Ngukurr: A Remote Australian Aboriginal Community Eva McRae-Williams (BA, BBH, MA) September 2008 Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for: Doctor of Philosophy (Anthropology) Charles Darwin University Statement of Authorship Except where referenced in the text of the research project, this dissertation contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or part from a thesis or report by me for another degree or diploma. No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the dissertation. The dissertation has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution. Eva McRae-Williams Date: ……………… ii Abstract This thesis is an ethnographic study of the ‘work’ ideologies inherent in a remote Australian Aboriginal community; Ngukurr in South East Arnhem Land of the Northern Territory. Formerly known as the Roper River Mission and established in 1908, it is today home to approximately 1000 Aboriginal inhabitants. Fieldwork for this project was conducted in three phases between 2006 and 2007 totalling seven months. The aim of this research was to gain an insight into the meaning and value of ‘work’ for Aboriginal people in Ngukurr. First, this involved acknowledging the centrality of paid employment to mainstream western ‘work’ ideology and its influence on my own, and other non-Aboriginal peoples, understandings and ways of being in the world. Through this recognition the historical and contemporary relationship between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people in the northern part of Australia, specifically the Roper River region, was found to be fundamentally shaped by labour relations and dominant western ‘work’ ideology. The influence of this ‘work’ ideology on Aboriginal people, expressed through the policies and practices of both Governments and Missions, is explored through an analysis of Aboriginal memories of ‘work’. Ambiguity in the meaning and value of ‘work’ is emphasised and elements of Aboriginal ‘work’ ideology, as distinct from dominant western work ideology, are explored. The influence of contemporary employment arrangements on Aboriginal understandings of ‘work’ is investigated and the sometimes problematic relationship between Aboriginal cultural beliefs and practices and those espoused by dominant western work ideology illustrated. In conclusion this research found that Aboriginal people in Ngukurr have a ‘work’ ideology that is distinct from its western counterpart. Shaped by unique historical, social and cultural phenomena it is not confined to the sphere of paid or formal employment. The multidimensional nature of contemporary Aboriginal ‘work’ ideology in Ngukurr suggests that overcoming high levels of unemployment in remote communities may not simply be about providing more ‘jobs’, training or education. iii Acknowledgements My journey as a perpetual student is finally coming to an end and I would like to take this opportunity to thank everybody whose support and understanding as enabled me to have the energy, stamina and confidence to come this far. Firstly, I would like to thank my friends and family in Ngukurr. The time I spent with you, has greatly enriched my life. Without “you mob” this project would not have been possible and I am greatly indebted to all of you. I would also like to thank the Yugul Mangi Community Government Council for their continued support. Secondly, I wish to thank my supervisors, Prof. Rolf Gerritsen and Dr. Kate Senior. To Rolf for his support throughout my candidature, our time together in the field and our many conversations, which were always thought provoking and often full of laughs. You were a great support when I felt overwhelmed by moral conundrums and your editorial expertise was greatly appreciated. Thank you also to Kate, for providing me with the opportunity to experience Ngukurr, facilitating my introduction to a number of key informants, and providing comments on my drafts. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Catherine Holmes and Dr. Richard Chenall. To Catherine for her friendship and encouragement. You often helped me on those occasions where I felt utterly confused and I am enormously grateful for your continuing interest in my research. To Richard for your advice during the final stages of the writing up process. Finally, I am extremely indebted to my family and friends who have been there to support me since my undergraduate years. They have all been great listeners and ‘spounding boards’ for developing my ideas. To Mum and Dad, I couldn’t have got here if it wasn’t for your loving support and your unwavering confidence in my abilities. iv Preface The purpose of this preface is to introduce my own position as a researcher. It is an acknowledgement of the fact that my age, gender, ethnicity, upbringing and life experiences will have affected most aspects of this inquiry. Extending from my choice of research topic, to how I undertook the research, and to my interpretation of data. I was born in December 1980 in Horsham, the heart of the Wimmera farming district in Victoria Australia. I have a strong farming heritage, including a homestead (Glenwillan) filled to the brim with historical archives. One archive I came across recently, encouraged me to acknowledge on a very personal level, the way in which most Australians including myself, have a history of ignorance and brutality when it comes to our relationships with Indigenous people. My great great uncle, a much respected family member whose portrait adorns the walls of Glenwillian, wrote to his family in 1865 from the top end of Australia: When we were out 20 of them [Aborigines] tried to sneak up on our camp at night. They got within 20 yards before they were discovered, we fired 3 shots at them and they retreated. In the morning we followed them and gave them what they deserved. I have included this quote, not to expose the wrong doings of my uncle, but rather as a way of acknowledging that, as a researcher I am embedded in a larger framework of Australian history and culture. I am a child of western colonisation and culture and have no familial (blood) ties to the Indigenous Australian population. My parents are both Anglo-Australian and would be classified as middle-class. Both are university educated and hold higher degrees. I have one younger sister and for the most part we grew up on a small organic farm near Ballarat in Victoria. v TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION _____________________________________________________1 STUDY FOCUS AND RESEARCH QUESTION __________________________________4 STUDY SITE : NGUKURR _________________________________________________6 ETHNOGRAPHY _______________________________________________________7 THESIS OUTLINE ______________________________________________________9 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCING NGUKURR ___________________________13 INTRODUCTION ______________________________________________________13 FIRST GLIMPSE ______________________________________________________13 HISTORICAL CONTEXT ________________________________________________14 Pre-Mission _______________________________________________________16 Roper River Mission 1908 – 1968 _____________________________________17 Post-Mission - Ngukurr _____________________________________________20 THE TOWNSHIP TODAY ________________________________________________27 Housing __________________________________________________________29 Community Buildings and Amenities __________________________________31 Daily Life _________________________________________________________34 CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY - ETHNOGRAPHY ___________________38 INTRODUCTION ______________________________________________________38 RESEARCH APPROACH ________________________________________________39 ETHICS AND PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION _________________________________41 FIELDWORK IN NGUKURR ______________________________________________42 Introductory fieldwork ______________________________________________45 Fieldwork period one ________________________________________________46 Fieldwork period two ________________________________________________49 Fieldwork period three _______________________________________________53 INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ________________________________54 CONCLUSION _______________________________________________________55 CHAPTER THREE: VALUES AND PERCEPTIONS OF NON-ABORIGINAL WORK CULTURE _________________________________57 INTRODUCTION ______________________________________________________57 MY EXPERIENCE AS ‘B OSS ’ _____________________________________________58 NON -ABORIGINAL WORK ATTITUDES AND INTERACTIONS ___________________63 vi Challenging western work ideology ____________________________________73 THE DOMINANCE OF A WESTERN WORK IDEOLOGY ________________________74 The transformation of work behaviours _________________________________76 Time, work, leisure and balance _______________________________________78 The “work ethic” ___________________________________________________82 Education, training and the notion of ‘career’ ____________________________85 THE UNEMPLOYED ___________________________________________________87 CONCLUSION _______________________________________________________90 CHAPTER FOUR : LABOUR RELATIONS IN NORTHERN AUSTRALIA AND ABORIGINAL MEMORIES OF WORK ____________________________92 INTRODUCTION ______________________________________________________92 AN EXPLOITED LABOUR FORCE _________________________________________93 The slavery debate __________________________________________________97