The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts ASSESSING WOMEN’S ENDORSEMENT OF CONFLICTING MESSAGES ABOUT SEXUALITY: DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEXUAL AMBIVALENCE QUESTIONNAIRE (SAQ) A Dissertation in Psychology by Cinnamon L. Danube © 2011 Cinnamon L. Danube Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2011 ii The Dissertation of Cinnamon L. Danube was reviewed and approved* by the following: Karen Gasper Associate Professor of Psychology Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee Janet K. Swim Professor of Psychology Theresa K. Vescio Associate Professor of Psychology Patricia Barthalow Koch Professor of Biobehavioral Health Melvin M. Mark Professor of Psychology Head of the Department of Psychology *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii Abstract I argue that the American culture provides women with mixed and conflicting messages about sexual expression and will demonstrate that these messages can create conflict in some women that contributes to unhealthy sexual attitudes and behaviors. I focus on two messages. First, women learn to hide their sexual feelings so as to conform to traditional standards of femininity and morally virtuous behavior (Tolman, 2002) and to be disproportionately concerned about the possible dangers of sexual expression (Fine, 1988; Vance, 1984). I label these Suppress messages because they teach women to suppress sexual feelings and ―just say no‖ to sexual expression. Conversely, women learn the importance of proving their desirability by performing their sexuality so as to appear sexually attractive and desiring of sexual attention from men (Douglas, 2010; Levy, 2005; Tolman, 2002), irrespective of their own desires (Tolman, 2002). I label this a Perform message because it encourages women to engage in sexual performance so as to always ―appear sexually available.‖ Suppress and Perform messages are both problematic. However, I go farther to argue that they are particularly problematic because they are contradictory. They pit the idea that sexual expression should be hidden and is dangerous against messages that sexual expression should be performed and displayed. Simultaneous endorsement of Perform and Suppress messages might create a state of conflict in some women, sexual ambivalence (SA), with regards to how to negotiate sexual expression. In this research, I describe the creation (Study 1 and 2) and validation (Study 3 and 4) of a measure that assesses women‘s endorsement of these messages, the Sexual Ambivalence Questionnaire (SAQ), such that predictions can be tested. I use the SAQ to demonstrate that endorsement of either Perform or Suppress messages alone, or endorsement of both simultaneously (SA), can lead to negative consequences for women‘s attitudes, beliefs, and decision-making. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables ..............................................................................................................................v List of Figures ............................................................................................................................vi Introduction ....…………………………………………………………………………………….1 Suppress Messages: ―Just Say No‖ ……………………………………………………....3 Perform Messages: Always ―Appear Sexually Available‖ ……………………………....8 Measuring Endorsement of Suppress and Perform Messages ……………………….....13 Sexual Ambivalence (SA) ……………………………………………………………....14 Ambivalence as a Psychological Construct …………………………………………….15 Study 1: Developing the SAQ …………………………………………………………………..19 Method ……………………………………………………………………………….....20 Results …………………………………………………………………………………..22 Discussion …………………………………………………………………………........24 Study 2: Exploratory Factor Analysis …………………………………………………………..25 Method …………………………………………………………………………………..25 Results …………………………………………………………………………………..26 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………....28 Study 3: SAQ Factor Structure, Construct Validity, and Association with Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors ....................................................................................................................................29 Method ............................................................................................................................36 Results .............................................................................................................................40 Discussion .......................................................................................................................52 Study 4: Predictive Validity – Susceptibility to Influence by Situational Cues ..........................59 Method .............................................................................................................................59 Results .............................................................................................................................64 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………….77 General Discussion ………………………………………………………………………….......80 Convergent and Discriminant Validity of the SAQ .........................................................81 The Utility of Measuring Perform, Suppress, and SA Attitudes ......................................85 Limitations ........................................................................................................................89 Conclusion and Future Directions ....................................................................................92 References ....................................................................................................................................97 Appendix A: Q-Sort Interview Script .........................................................................................113 Appendix B: Q-Sort Interview Theme Definitions .....................................................................116 Appendix C: Calculation of Substantive Validity Formulas ......................................................117 Appendix D: SAQ Measure ........................................................................................................118 Appendix E: Study 3 Individual Difference Measures ...............................................................119 Appendix F: Study 4 Persuasive Communications .....................................................................133 Appendix G: Study 4 Measures ..................................................................................................137 v LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Item Substantive Validity Coefficients ...........................................................................23 Table 2. EFA Factors, Items, and Factor Loadings ......................................................................26 Table 3. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations ...........................................................................28 Table 4. Predicted Perform and Suppress Correlations with Individual Difference Measures ....30 Table 5. Predicted SA Correlations with Individual Difference Measures ..................................31 Table 6. Predicted Perform, Suppress, and SA Correlations with Sexual Attitudes, Behaviors, and Alcohol Use ............................................................................................................................31 Table 7. Individual Difference Measure Scale Alphas, Means, and Standard Deviations ...........38 Table 8. Sexual Attitudes, Behaviors, and Personality Measure Scale Alphas, Means, and Standard Deviations ......................................................................................................................40 Table 9. Standardized Regression Weights and Covariances for Final Model .............................42 Table 10. Individual Difference Variable Correlations and Regression Analysis ........................45 Table 11. Sexual Attitudes, Behaviors, and Alcohol Use Correlations and Regression Analysis ........................................................................................................................................................46 Table 12. Test-Retest Reliability Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations ........................65 Table 13. Manipulation Check Means and Standard Deviations by Communication Condition ........................................................................................................................................................66 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Hypothesized 2-Factor Model .......................................................................................41 Figure 2. Positivity Towards Reading Perform Over Suppress-Oriented Article Titles by SA and Communication Condition ............................................................................................................70 Figure 3. Positivity Towards Reading Perform Over Suppress-Oriented Article Titles by SA and Communication Condition – Alternate Analysis ..........................................................................72 1 Introduction ―Here‘s what our increasingly pornified media have been telling girls and women: dress like a streetwalker but just say no – or dress like Carrie Bradshaw [on the TV show Sex and the City]…and just say yes. Old-fashioned American prudery has always been an important component of keeping women in their place. So has pornography. A culture that is prudish and pornographic – how‘s that for a contradiction to navigate?‖ (Douglas, 2010, p. 155) ―…girls walk the precarious line between making themselves sexually