UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA CRUZ GEMINATED LIQUIDS IN JAPANESE: A PRODUCTION STUDY A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in LINGUISTICS by Maho Morimoto March 2020 The Dissertation of Maho Morimoto is approved: Grant McGuire, Chair Jaye Padgett Ryan Bennett Quentin Williams Acting Vice Provost and Dean of Graduate Studies Copyright © by Maho Morimoto 2020 Contents List of Figures vi List of Tables ix Abstract xvi Dedication xviii Acknowledgments xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction . .1 1.2 Japanese phonology . .2 1.2.1 Vowel and consonant inventories . .2 1.2.2 Morpheme classes and lexical domains . .2 1.2.3 Geminates in Japanese . .3 1.2.4 Liquid consonant in Japanese . .6 1.3 Geminated liquids in Japanese . 11 1.3.1 Avoidance of geminated liquids . 11 1.3.2 Appearance of geminated liquids . 13 1.3.3 Issues in geminated liquids . 15 1.4 Outline of the dissertation . 17 2 Acoustic Characteristics of Geminated Liquids in Japanese 18 2.1 Introduction . 18 2.1.1 Acoustic characteristics of liquids . 19 2.1.2 Acoustic characteristics of geminates . 21 2.2 Method . 24 2.2.1 Subjects . 24 2.2.2 Speech materials . 25 2.2.3 Procedure . 28 2.2.4 Measurements . 29 iii 2.3 Durational results & discussion . 30 2.3.1 Consonant duration . 30 2.3.2 Preceding vowel duration . 34 2.3.3 Following vowel duration . 37 2.3.4 VCV duration . 40 2.3.5 Discussion . 42 2.4 Non-durational results & discussion . 43 2.4.1 Intensity on the consonants . 43 2.4.2 Formant frequencies on liquids . 48 2.4.3 Laryngeal activity . 50 2.5 Discussion & summary . 53 3 Articulatory Characteristics of Geminated Liquids in Japanese 54 3.1 Introduction . 54 3.1.1 Articulatory characteristics of liquids . 55 3.1.2 Articulatory studies of liquids in Japanese . 58 3.1.3 Articulatory characteristics of geminates . 65 3.1.4 Articulatory studies of geminates in Japanese . 69 3.2 Method . 71 3.2.1 Subjects . 73 3.2.2 Speech materials . 73 3.2.3 Procedure . 73 3.2.4 Measurements . 76 3.3 Durational results . 80 3.3.1 Gesture duration . 80 3.3.2 Plateau duration . 83 3.3.3 Gestural duration vs. acoustic duration . 86 3.3.4 Summary . 90 3.4 Positional results . 91 3.4.1 TT position at TT maximal constriction point . 91 3.4.2 TB position at TT maximal constriction point . 96 3.4.3 TD backness at TT maximal constriction point . 102 3.5 Lateralization and tongue curling . 104 3.5.1 Lateralization at TT maximal constriction point . 104 3.5.2 Tongue curling at TT maximal constriction point . 108 3.6 Trajectory results . 111 3.6.1 Temporal dynamics of lateralization and tongue curling . 112 3.6.2 Temporal dynamics of TT and TB rising gestures . 115 3.6.3 Temporal dynamics of TD backing gestures . 118 3.6.4 Relative timings of gestures . 119 3.7 Discussion & summary . 120 iv 4 Conclusion 122 4.1 Summary of the results . 122 4.2 Implications and future research . 123 A Supplemental Materials: Acoustic 127 A.1 Mixed effects models of C2 duration per subject . 127 A.2 Mixed effects models of V1 duration per subject . 130 A.3 Mixed effects models of V2 duration per subject . 133 A.4 Mixed effects models of VCV duration per subject . 135 A.5 Mixed effects models of C2 amplitude per subject . 138 A.6 Word duration . 141 A.7 Mixed effects models of Word duration per subject . 143 B Supplemental Materials: Articulatory 147 B.1 Mixed effects models of TT gestural duration per subject . 147 B.2 Mixed effects models of TT plateau duration per subject . 150 B.3 Mixed effects models of TT height per subject . 153 B.4 Mixed effects models of TT backness per subject . 156 B.5 Mixed effects models of TB height per subject . 158 B.6 Mixed effects models of TB backness per subject . 161 B.7 Mixed effects models of TD backness per subject . 164 B.8 Mixed effects models of lateralization per subject . 166 B.9 Mixed effects models of tongue curling per subject . 169 B.10 TT horizontal trajectories per subject (restricted data) . 172 B.11 TB horizontal trajectories per subject (restricted data) . 173 B.12 Resting position for each subject . 174 B.13 Sensor configuration at TT maximal constriction of liquids . 176 References 177 v List of Figures 1.1 Waveforms and spectrograms for consonant length contrast in Japanese4 1.2 Phonological representation of consonant length contrast in Japanese . .5 1.3 Gestural possibilities for geminated liquids . 17 2.1 C2 acoustic duration per consonant . 31 2.2 C2 acoustic duration of liquids per subject . 33 2.3 V1 duration per consonant . 35 2.4 V1 duration for liquids per subject . 36 2.5 V2 duration per consonant . 38 2.6 V2 duration for liquids per subject . 39 2.7 VCV duration per consonant . 40 2.8 VCV duration for liquids per subject . 42 2.9 C2 RMS amplitude per consonant . 44 2.10 C2 RMS amplitude for liquids per subject . 45 2.11 Sample spectrograms for each subject . 47 2.12 C2 formant frequencies for liquids per subject . 50 2.13 Sample spectrograms from S5 . 52 2.14 Gestural possibilities for geminated liquids, updated . 53 3.1 Sensor position . 75 3.2 Sample gestural tracking interface for singleton /t/ . 77 3.3 Gestural landmarks . 77 3.4 Lateralization for each side of the tongue . 79 vi 3.5 C2 gestural duration per consonant . 81 3.6 C2 gestural duration for liquids per subject . 83 3.7 C2 plateau duration per consonant . 84 3.8 C2 plateau duration for liquids per subject . 86 3.9 C2 acoustic, gestural, and plateau durations . 87 3.10 Relationship between acoustic and gestural durations per subject . 88 3.11 Distribution of acoustic vs. gestural durations from S5 . 89 3.12 SSANOVA: TT vertical movement trajectories from S5 and S8 . 90 3.13 TT height at TT maximal constriction point per consonant . 92 3.14 TT height at TT maximal constriction point per subject . 93 3.15 TT backness at TT maximal constriction point per consonant . 94 3.16 TT backness at TT maximal constriction point per subject . 96 3.17 TB height at TT maximal constriction point per consonant . 97 3.18 TB height at TT maximal constriction point per subject . 99 3.19 TB backness at TT maximal constriction point per consonant . 100 3.20 TB backness at TT maximal constriction point per subject . 101 3.21 TD backness at TT maximal constriction point per consonant . 102 3.22 TD backness at TT maximal constriction point per subject . 104 3.23 Lateralization per consonant . 105 3.24 Lateralization per subject . 107 3.25 Tongue curling per consonant . 108 3.26 Tongue curling per subject . 110 3.27 SSANOVA: singleton lateralization . 113 3.28 SSANOVA: geminate lateralization . 113 3.29 SSANOVA: singleton tongue curling . 114 3.30 SSANOVA: geminate tongue curling . 115 3.31 SSANOVA: singleton TT vertical movement . 116 3.32 SSANOVA: geminate TT vertical movement . 116 3.33 SSANOVA: singleton TB vertical movement . 117 3.34 SSANOVA: geminate TB vertical movement . 117 3.35 SSANOVA: singleton TD horizontal movement . 118 vii 3.36 SSANOVA: geminate TD horizontal movement . 118 3.37 SSANOVA: liquid gestures for VCV region in S2 and S6 . 119 3.38 Gestural possibilities for geminated liquids, repeated . 120 3.39 Gestural possibilities for geminated liquids, repeated again . 121 A.1 Word duration per consonant . 141 A.2 Word duration for liquids per subject . 143 B.1 SSANOVA: singleton TT horizontal movement . 172 B.2 SSANOVA: geminate TT horizontal movement . 172 B.3 SSANOVA: singleton TB horizontal movement . 173 B.4 SSANOVA: geminate TB horizontal movement . 173 B.5 Sensor configuration at resting position for each subject . 174 B.6 Sensor configuration.