The SAGE Handbook of Digital Journalism BK-SAGE-WITSCHGE-160034.indb 1 4/21/2016 8:51:09 PM SAGE was founded in 1965 by Sara Miller McCune to support the dissemination of usable knowledge by publishing innovative and high-quality research and teaching content. Today, we publish over 900 journals, including those of more than 400 learned societies, more than 800 new books per year, and a growing range of library products including archives, data, case studies, reports, and video. SAGE remains majority-owned by our founder, and after Sara’s lifetime will become owned by a charitable trust that secures our continued independence. Los Angeles | London | New Delhi | Singapore | Washington DC | Melbourne BK-SAGE-WITSCHGE-160034.indb 2 4/21/2016 8:51:15 PM The SAGE Handbook of Digital Journalism Edited by Tamara Witschge, C.W. Anderson, David Domingo and Alfred Hermida BK-SAGE-WITSCHGE-160034.indb 3 4/21/2016 8:51:15 PM SAGE Publications Ltd Introductions & editorial arrangement © Tamara Witschge, 1 Oliver’s Yard C.W. Anderson, David Domingo and Alfred Hermida 2016 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP Chapter 1 © Beate Josephi 2016 Chapter 21 © Laura Ahva and Chapter 2 © Owen Taylor 2016 Heikki Heikkilä 2016 SAGE Publications Inc. Chapter 3 © Eugenia Siapera Chapter 22 © Bart Cammaerts 2455 Teller Road 2016 and Nick Couldry 2016 Thousand Oaks, California 91320 Chapter 4 © Rasmus Kleis Chapter 23 © Seth C. Lewis and Nielsen 2016 Oscar Westlund 2016 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd Chapter 5 © Stephen J.A. Ward Chapter 24 © Chris Peters 2016 B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area 2016 Chapter 25 © David M. Ryfe Mathura Road Chapter 6 © Alfred Hermida 2016 2016 New Delhi 110 044 Chapter 7 © Sharon Meraz and Chapter 26 © Tim P. 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Scott Brennen 2016 and Jan-Hinrik Schmidt 2016 Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. Library of Congress Control Number: 2015954909 At SAGE we take sustainability seriously. Most of our products are printed in the UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication data using FSC papers and boards. When we print overseas we ensure sustainable A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library papers are used as measured by the PREPS grading system. We undertake an annual audit to monitor our sustainability. ISBN 978-1-4739-0653-2 BK-SAGE-WITSCHGE-160034.indb 4 4/21/2016 8:51:15 PM Contents List of Figures and Tables viii Notes on the Editors and Contributors ix Introduction 1 Tamara Witschge, C.W. Anderson, David Domingo, and Alfred Hermida PART I CHANGING CONTEXTS 5 1. Digital Journalism and Democracy 9 Beate Josephi 2. Global Media Power 25 Taylor Owen 3. Digital News Media and Ethnic Minorities 35 Eugenia Siapera 4. The Business of News 51 Rasmus Kleis Nielsen 5. Digital Journalism Ethics 68 Stephen J.A. Ward 6. Social Media and the News 81 Alfred Hermida 7. Networked Framing and Gatekeeping 95 Sharon Meraz and Zizi Papacharissi 8. The Intimization of Journalism 113 Steen Steensen 9. Emotion and Journalism 128 Karin Wahl-Jorgensen PART II NEWS PRACTICES IN THE DIGITAL ERA 145 10. Networked Journalism 149 Adrienne Russell 11. Hybrid News Practices 164 James F. Hamilton BK-SAGE-WITSCHGE-160034.indb 5 4/21/2016 8:51:15 PM vi THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF DIGITAL JOURNALISM 12. The Ecology of Participation 179 Renee Barnes 13. Innovation in the Newsroom 192 Steve Paulussen 14. Outsourcing Newswork 207 Henrik Örnebring and Raul Ferrer Conill 15. Semi-professional Amateurs 222 Jérémie Nicey 16. Sources as News Producers 236 Matt Carlson 17. Activists as News Producers 250 Yana Breindl 18. Citizen Witnesses 266 Stuart Allan 19. Hyperlocal News 280 Andy Williams and David Harte PART III CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF JOURNALISM 295 20. Normative Models of Digital Journalism 299 Daniel Kreiss and J. Scott Brennen 21. Mass, Audience, and the Public 315 Laura Ahva and Heikki Heikkilä 22. Digital Journalism as Practice 326 Bart Cammaerts and Nick Couldry 23. Mapping the Human–Machine Divide in Journalism 341 Seth C. Lewis and Oscar Westlund 24. Spaces and Places of News Consumption 354 Chris Peters 25. News Institutions 370 David M. Ryfe 26. Journalistic Fields 383 Tim P. Vos BK-SAGE-WITSCHGE-160034.indb 6 4/21/2016 8:51:15 PM CONTENTS vii 27. News Networks 397 David Domingo and Victor Wiard 28. News Ecosystems 410 C.W. Anderson 29. Liquid Journalism 424 Anu Kantola PART IV RESEARCH STRATEGIES 443 30. Ethnography of Digital News Production 447 Sue Robinson and Meredith Metzler 31. Adopting a ‘Material Sensibility’ in Journalism Studies 460 Juliette De Maeyer 32. Reconstructing Production Practices through Interviewing 477 Zvi Reich and Aviv Barnoy 33. Sampling Liquid Journalism 494 Anders Olof Larsson, Helle Sjøvaag, Michael Karlsson, Eirik Stavelin, and Hallvard Moe 34. Big Data Analysis 509 Axel Bruns 35. Q-Method and News Audience Research 528 Kim Christian Schrøder 36. Practicing Audience-centred Journalism Research 546 Irene Costera Meijer 37. Multi-method Approaches 562 Wiebke Loosen and Jan-Hinrik Schmidt Author Index 577 Subject Index 595 BK-SAGE-WITSCHGE-160034.indb 7 4/21/2016 8:51:15 PM 1 Digital Journalism and Democracy Beate Josephi INTRODUCTION some gains and losses brought about by the changes can already be assessed. Digital journalism was not born out of As this chapter sets out to give an overview nowhere. It grew from technical possibilities of journalism and democracy, it does so with and, within a short time span, has decidedly the various trends in journalism, the digital altered the face of journalism, notably in divide and uneven spread of democracy in North America, Europe and Australia. mind. Given that the beginnings of journalism Globally, traditional journalism still holds and democracy as well as the current acceler- sway, and for this reason digital journalism ating changes in journalism are located in the has to be seen in conjunction with traditional Western world, it is only too easy to focus journalism rather than in isolation. on that region alone. But this would lead to a Digital journalism defines its relationship reductive picture of journalism. to democracy somewhat differently to tra- ditional journalism. Technological changes have opened channels for all who are able Journalism and democracy and wish to actively participate in the creation and distribution of news, a role previously The notion of journalism being a vital part of confined to journalists and media houses, democracy was most explicitly formulated in thus democratizing journalistic processes. the twentieth century. But the beginnings of This chapter explains the various visions of a link between a critical press and the journalism, and of democracy, and sets out to endeavours towards democracy go back to explore how the new possibilities of partici- the seventeenth century when ideological pation affect journalists. Many developments struggles were first played out in the press. in digital journalism are still playing out, but To free the press from its shackles of state BK-SAGE-WITSCHGE-160034.indb 9 4/21/2016 8:51:17 PM 10 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF DIGItaL JOURNALISM and religious authority, poet John Milton themselves as specialists and profession- demanded the ‘Liberty of Unlicensed als, even though the lesser-regarded populist Printing’ (1644). His speech to Parliament, press decried this move as undemocratic for published under the title Areopagitica, to this its elitism (Bates, 1995: 6). day remains a fundamental text in the fight Much of the subsequent scholarly criticism for the freedom of expression. Milton, for his was devoted to the practices and choices made part, was convinced that if all ‘the winds of by journalists and editors in their appropri- doctrine were let loose upon the earth’, truth ated roles. Under the impact of digital jour- would win out. nalism, the contestation between those who As the bourgeois class rose during the defend the mediated voice of large sections of Industrial Revolution and the number of liter- society through professional journalists and ate readers grew, the press provided a forum those who prefer ‘individual-centred under- for contesting political demands.