Causes and effects of the worldwide decline in pollinators and corrective measures by Madeleine Chagnon for the Quebec Regional Office Of the Canadian Wildlife Federation December 2008 This document can be reproduced only in whole for purposes of disseminating information. Any duplication of this document, itself thereof, is contingent upon proper citation of the author and owner as follows: Chagnon, M. 2008. Causes and effects of the worldwide decline in pollinators and corrective measures. Canadian Wildlife Federation. Quebec Regional Office. Canadian Wildlife federation. Quebec Regional Office. ii Table of Contents 1. POLLINATION ................................................................................................................................................................................1 1.1 Flowers and Their Pollinators.............................................................................................................................................1 1.2 Wild, Native, Exotic or Introduced Pollinators ..............................................................................................................1 1.2.1 Wild Pollinators and Native Pollinators ..................................................................................................................1 1.2.2 Introduced Pollinators .................................................................................................................................................2 1.3 Bees ...........................................................................................................................................................................................2 1.3.1 Solitary Bees....................................................................................................................................................................2 1.3.2 Social and/or Gregarious Bees ....................................................................................................................................2 1.4 Food Preferences ....................................................................................................................................................................3 1.4.1 Pollinator Efficiency: Pollen or Nectar? ..................................................................................................................3 1.4.2 Foraging Types...............................................................................................................................................................3 1.4.3 Foraging Behaviour.......................................................................................................................................................4 1.5 Pollination of Plants..............................................................................................................................................................4 1.5.1 Types of Pollination of Flowering Plants .................................................................................................................4 1.5.2 Types of Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants................................................................................................4 2. THE WORLDWIDE DECLINE OF POLLINATORS....................................................................................................................4 2.1 The Loss of Honey Bee Colonies........................................................................................................................................5 2.2 The Decline of Wild Pollinators.........................................................................................................................................6 2.2.1 Estimation of the Severity of the Decline.................................................................................................................6 2.2.2 Examples of Local Studies: Contradictory Conclusions ......................................................................................7 2.3 Repercussions on Plant-Pollinator Interactions ..............................................................................................................7 2.4 Genetic Variation...................................................................................................................................................................7 2.5 Estimation of Decline by Means of Pollination Deficit.................................................................................................8 3. POLLINATOR VALUE AND SERVICES........................................................................................................................................8 3.1 Monetary Value of Crop Pollination.................................................................................................................................8 3.2 Worldwide Evaluation of Pollination................................................................................................................................9 3.3 Estimation of the Pollination Value for Some Important Productions in Canada............................................... 10 3.3.1 Fruit Tree Crops......................................................................................................................................................... 10 3.3.2 Berry Crops.................................................................................................................................................................. 14 3.3.3 Curcubitaceae Crops ................................................................................................................................................. 15 3.4 Estimation of the Pollination Value for Some Worldwide Productions That Improve our Daily Lives.......... 16 3.4.1 Stimulants.................................................................................................................................................................... 16 3.4.2 Other Crops ................................................................................................................................................................ 16 3.5 Value of Native Pollinators............................................................................................................................................... 16 3.5.1 Reinforcing Local Populations of Native Species ................................................................................................ 17 3.5.2 Wild Pollinators in Quebec’s Agroecosystems..................................................................................................... 17 3.5.3 Management of Native Pollinators......................................................................................................................... 17 3.6 Ecological Value of Pollinators in Natural Environments.......................................................................................... 20 3.6.1 Value of Ecosystemic Services .................................................................................................................................. 20 3.6.2 Ecological Value.......................................................................................................................................................... 20 3.6.3 Importance for Biodiversity-Rich Environments (Hot Spots)......................................................................... 21 Canadian Wildlife federation. Quebec Regional Office. iii 3.6.4 Intrinsic Value of Pollinators................................................................................................................................... 21 4. POSSIBLE CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF NATIVE AND INTRODUCED POLLINATORS............................................... 21 4.1 Pesticides............................................................................................................................................................................... 22 4.1.1 Use of Pesticides in Quebec, Canada and Elsewhere in the World. ................................................................ 22 4.1.2 New Molecules............................................................................................................................................................ 23 4.1.3 Transgenic Crops (GMOs)...................................................................................................................................... 24 4.2 Fragmentation and Habitat Loss..................................................................................................................................... 25 4.2.1 Impacts of Agriculture............................................................................................................................................... 25 4.2.2 Importance of Floral Resources............................................................................................................................... 27 4.2.3 Urbanization ............................................................................................................................................................... 28 4.2.4 Habitat Loss Associated with Recreational Activities ........................................................................................ 29 4.3 Exotic Species....................................................................................................................................................................... 29 4.3.1 Honey Bee...................................................................................................................................................................