WARRIORS AND PROPHETS OF LIVITY: SAMSON AND MOSES AS MORAL EXEMPLARS IN RASTAFARI __________________________________________________________________ A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board __________________________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY __________________________________________________________________ by Ariella Y. Werden-Greenfield July, 2016 __________________________________________________________________ Examining Committee Members: Terry Rey, Advisory Chair, Temple University, Department of Religion Rebecca Alpert, Temple University, Department of Religion Jeremy Schipper, Temple University, Department of Religion Adam Joseph Shellhorse, Temple University, Department of Spanish and Portuguese © Copyright 2016 by Ariella Y. Werden-Greenfield All Rights Reserved ii ABSTRACT Since the early 1970’s, Rastafari has enjoyed public notoriety disproportionate to the movement’s size and humble origins in the slums of Kingston, Jamaica roughly forty years earlier. Yet, though numerous academics study Rastafari, a certain lacuna exists in contemporary scholarship in regards to the movement’s scriptural basis. By interrogating Rastafari’s recovery of the Hebrew Bible from colonial powers and Rastas’ adoption of an Israelite identity, this dissertation illuminates the biblical foundation of Rastafari ethics and symbolic registry. An analysis of the body of scholarship on Rastafari, as well as of the reggae canon, reveals the centrality of an Israelite identity for Rastas and its enabling of Rastafari resistance to racial oppression. Furthermore, the Hebrew Bible is, for Rastas, key to an intimate relationship with Jah, for it reveals their chosenness and their inherent divine nature. They both textually confirm this election and enact it through ritual practice. By interrogating the methods Rastas apply to the pages of the Bible in order to ascertain their appointment and decipher proper ritual practice, this dissertation expands scholarly conversations about Rastafari biblical hermeneutics. Centering on readings of Samson and Moses, it suggests that these two biblical actors function as moral exemplars and models of livity for Rastas. Despite the transgressive nature of Samson and Moses, Rastas adopt them as co-practitioners and paradigms of Rastafari election because when Samson and Moses are Rastas, all Rastas can claim their chosenness, strength, and relationship with Jah. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study would not have been possible without the encouragement and support of my committee members and the other members of the faculty and staff of Temple University’s Department of Religion. Their input and advice has been invaluable throughout my academic progress. I extend my deepest gratitude to Dr. Terry Rey. I thank him for his guidance, instruction, and friendship throughout my graduate career, as well as for his tireless efforts on this dissertation. He has not only helped refine this project but has shaped me as a scholar, teacher, and human being. I would also like to acknowledge the other distinguished members of my committee. Dr. Rebecca Alpert, Dr. Jeremy Schipper, and Dr. Adam Shellhorse provided me with essential feedback and assistance, both while I was working on my dissertation and throughout my tenure at Temple University. I must also recognize Dr. Lila Corwin Berman, Dr. Laura Levitt, and Dr. Lewis Gordon who each guided me along the way. Without the encouragement of my father, Jeffrey I. Werden, I would have never embarked on this academic journey. It is thanks to his intellectual curiosity and his prioritization of education that I made the choice to enroll in a Ph.D. program. I am grateful to my grandmother, Yona Shwartz, who inspired me through her passion for lifelong learning and motivated me throughout this lengthy process. My husband, Michael Greenfield, has too been a tremendous source of support over the past seven years. I am forever grateful for his patience, reassurance, and inspiration. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………….I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………...….II CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: THE GLOBAL JOURNEY OF RASTAFARI.……………….…..2 Rasta Reasoning and the Scholarly Approach…………………………………….8 Rastafari From a Christian Perspective……………………………….……….…13 Terminological Choices………………………………………………………….19 Who is a Rasta? ………………………………………………………………….22 Rastafari International……………………………………………………………24 Redemption Song………………………………………………………………...26 Reggae as Ritual and Prayer………………………..……………………………31 Dissertation Structure...…………………………………………………………..33 Endnotes………………………………………………………………………….37 2. A LINEAR HISTORY OF RASTAFARI………………………...…………………..43 Missionaries in Jamaica………………………………………………………….46 Revolution in Jamaica…………………………………………………….……...49 An “End” to Slavery……………………………………………………………..52 The Bible in Jamaica……………………………………………………….…….53 Post-Emancipation Jamaica……………………………………………………...56 The Formation of Rastafari………………………………………………………58 v Endnotes………………………………………………………………………….65 3. RASTAFARI AND THE BIBLE……...……………………………………………...69 Burn Babylon…………………………………………………………………….73 Ethiopia as Zion………………………………………………………………….74 Reasoning Jah’s Blackness……………………………………………………………76 Rastas as I-n-I……………………………………………………………………81 Chosen Israelites……………………………………………………………………….85 Whiteness in the Hebrew Bible………………………………………………….94 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….…97 Endnotes………………………………………………………………………….97 4. LIVITY: TAKING THE ZIONIC PATH OF RASTAFARI………………………...103 Livity……………………………………………………………………………109 I-n-I and Ital…………………………………………………………………….113 Locks and Livity………………………………………………………………..117 Bobo Shanti: A Case Study…………………………………………………….125 Rastawoman and the Threat of the Female Body………………………………130 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...135 Endnotes………………………………………………………………………...136 5. SAMSON: PURITY, POWER, AND THE PUTRID……………………………….142 Samson as Chosen Nazirite……………………………………………………..146 Samson as Liberator…………………………………………………………….150 Samson as Impure Eater………………………………………………………...154 Samson as Dreadlocked Rasta………………………………………………….157 vi Conclusion………………………....…………………………………………...162 Endnotes………………………………………………………………………...163 6. THE GENDERING OF LIVITY: DELILAH, SAMSON, AND DANGEROUS WOMEN……………………………………………………………………………..…167 Shifting Gender Roles…………………………………………………………..176 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...183 Endnotes………………………………………………………………………...185 7. MOSES, THE WORD, AND THE PROMISE OF ZION…………………………...189 Moses as Survivor………………………………………………………………190 Moses as Rastaman……………………………………………………………..194 Moses as Violent Rebel………………………………………………………...200 Moses’ Encounters with Jah and Ganja………………………………………...207 Moses and the Word……………………………………………………………211 Moses and the Law……………………………………………………………..218 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...223 Endnotes………………………………………………………………………...224 8. MOSES AS REDEEMER AND DIVINE DISAPPOINTMENT…………………...229 I-n-I in Babylon…………………………………………….…………………...230 Moses and Miracles…………………………………………………………….235 Moses and the Rod……………………………………………………………...239 Moses approaches Zion…………………………………………………………245 Moses Misbehaves……………...………………………………………………253 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...259 vii Endnotes………………………………………………………………………...260 9. CONCLUSION: READING RASTAFARI IN THE 21ST CENTURY.………...…..264 Endnotes………………………………………………………………………...271 GLOSSARY……………………………………………………………………………272 REFERENCES CITED…………………………………………………………………277 SONGS CITED……………………...………………………………………………….290 viii We (Rastafari) are the ancients here today, to continue that trod of Isaiah, Daniel, Elijah, Jeremiah, Moses, David, Solomon. It is our prophets and warriors in this land who come before us and tell the people that iniquity must done, . that our people must be free. -Ras IvI1 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION: THE GLOBAL JOURNEY OF RASTAFARI Take out unno Bible And check it out like disciple Lord, mi God, say take out unno Bible Hear me now Say get inna the Bible. -Early B, “Take Up Your Bible” (1984) For most people who’ve ever heard the term, the mere mention of “Rastafari” conjures up images of Bob Marley and evokes auditory memories of the widely beloved music he produced during his brief but extraordinary career.2 Though some Rastas question Marley’s dedication to Rastafari, his global success carried the movement from its homeland in Jamaica across the world. His messages of freedom, his devotion to human rights, and his charisma resonated with his diverse audience, making him, according to the Public Broadcasting Service, “the most important figure in 20th century music.”3 But his listeners may have overlooked his deliberate engagements with the Bible. While his dreadlocks, colorful attire, and the revolutionary sound and lyrics of his music may have captured the hearts of many, his message of Rastafari’s biblical identity has largely slipped under the radar. Nevertheless, the Bible was of central importance in Marley’s life. In fact, he often carried a pocket-sized Bible with him so that he could refer to it for inspiration. One music journalist and Marley biographer described his intimacy with the Bible while on the Wailers’ 1975 tour: “Bob would often consult and quote from the weathered Bible he carried with him. His personal Bible was a Jamaican printing of the King James version, with a photocopied portrait of the Lion of Judah in full regalia pasted on the cover, as well as other pictures of Selassie glued on the inside cover and flyleaf.”4 And, 2 Journalist Vivien Goldman, who