i Kretan cult and customs, especially in the Classical and Hellenistic periods: a religious, social, and political study Thesis submitted for degree of MPhil Carolyn Schofield University College London ii Declaration I, Carolyn Schofield, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been acknowledged in the thesis. iii Abstract Ancient Krete perceived itself, and was perceived from outside, as rather different from the rest of Greece, particularly with respect to religion, social structure, and laws. The purpose of the thesis is to explore the bases for these perceptions and their accuracy. Krete’s self-perception is examined in the light of the account of Diodoros Siculus (Book 5, 64-80, allegedly based on Kretan sources), backed up by inscriptions and archaeology, while outside perceptions are derived mainly from other literary sources, including, inter alia, Homer, Strabo, Plato and Aristotle, Herodotos and Polybios; in both cases making reference also to the fragments and testimonia of ancient historians of Krete. While the main cult-epithets of Zeus on Krete – Diktaios, associated with pre-Greek inhabitants of eastern Krete, Idatas, associated with Dorian settlers, and Kretagenes, the symbol of the Hellenistic koinon - are almost unique to the island, those of Apollo are not, but there is good reason to believe that both Delphinios and Pythios originated on Krete, and evidence too that the Eleusinian Mysteries and Orphic and Dionysiac rites had much in common with early Kretan practice. The early institutionalization of pederasty, and the abduction of boys described by Ephoros, are unique to Krete, but the latter is distinct from rites of initiation to manhood, which continued later on Krete than elsewhere, and were associated with different gods. Laws were inscribed earlier and in greater quantity on Krete than elsewhere, and it is argued that Sparta’s constitution was modeled on Krete’s, rather than vice versa. Despite opportunities for cities to meet, and the establishment of the Hellenistic koinon, the Kretans rarely spoke with a single voice. There is little evidence of historical colonization into or from Krete, and the island was uniquely uninvolved in outside wars and alliances over the period considered. iv Acknowledgements My principal supervisor was Simon Hornblower and my second supervisor Alan Griffiths; I owe more to both of them than I can easily express. Simon’s input is always extremely stimulating, and I have very much appreciated his immense knowledge, his unfailing ability to re-focus me whenever I lost my way, his rigorous attention to detail, and his never-failing availability, including attending two CA conferences to chair the panel when I gave papers. Alan has been constantly encouraging, particularly towards the end, and crisp and learned with useful insights and advice. I would also like to thank Chris Carey and Stephen Colvin for helpful suggestions at my upgrade panel, and Stephen also, as Graduate Tutor, for efficient support and excellent communications. Earlier contributions go back to Elizabeth Hamilton, who inspired me at school with her Latin teaching, and would have taught me Greek as well but sadly moved on, leaving an inadequate replacement, and me to gravitate through modern languages and mathematics to a degree in Engineering and career in industry. Much later the Open University gave me a second chance, and enthusiasm for Classics was inspired by Francis Lucas, my tutor in first year Greek and Homer, and Norman Shiel, with a course on fifth-century Athens. I am grateful to the OU for allowing me to complete my BA degree course at UCL, to Bob Sharples, who looked after the OU students there, and my teachers: Alan Griffiths, Maria Broggiato, Simon Hornblower, Herwig Maehler, Stephen Instone, Cornelia Roemer, and Richard Janko. I was encouraged by Richard Janko to do the MA and my thanks to Rhiannon Ashe, Simon Hornblower, and Cornelia Roemer in this connection are recorded elsewhere. Finally thanks to Sheila Cameron, for much practical advice on text manipulation, and to other supportive friends, particularly Julia Newton, Margaret Mountford, Ken Webb, and Derek Thompson, for their unfailing interest and encouragement. The map is from The Barrington Atlas of the Ancient World (ed. R.T.A. Talbert, Princeton and Oxford, 2000), and I am grateful to Sue Willetts, Ken Watson, and Chris Torrens for help in reproducing it. v Table of Contents Title-page i Declaration ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v Abbreviations xi 1 Why Krete? 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Methodology 3 1.2.1 Diodoros and his ‘Kretan Sources’ 3 1.2.2 Inscriptions 6 1.2.3 Archaeology 6 1.2.4 Literary Evidence other than Diodoros 6 1.2.5 Topographical Autopsy 7 1.2.6 Period Covered 7 1.2.7 Bibliography 7 1.2.8 Spelling Convention 8 2 The Palaikastro Hymn and Kretan-born Zeus 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 The Palaikastro Hymn 9 2.2.1 Introduction 9 2.2.2 Text and Translation 11 2.2.3 The Refrain 13 2.2.4 The Stanzas 15 2.2.5 Dates 17 2.2.6 The Daimones, The Kouretes, and the Singers 22 2.3 Kretan-born Zeus 25 2.3.1 The Nature of Zeus 25 2.3.2 The Birth of Zeus 26 2.3.3 The Tomb of Zeus 28 vi 2.4 Cults of Zeus 30 2.4.1 Zeus Diktaios and the Location of Dikte 30 2.4.2 Zeus Idatas (or Idaios) 33 2.4.3 Zeus Kretagenes 36 2.4.4 Other Cults of Zeus Found on Krete 38 2.5 Conclusions 40 3 Cults of Apollo in Krete 41 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Apollo Delphinios 42 3.2.1 Origins 42 3.2.2 Controversy at Dreros 44 3.2.3 Municipal Buildings and Rites of Passage 46 3.2.4 Purification 48 3.3 Apollo Pythios 49 3.3.1 Distribution of the Cult in Krete 49 3 3.2 Origins 51 3.4 Delphinios/Pythios Compared 53 3.4.1 Characteristics 53 3.4.2 The Evidence of Invocation 54 3.4.3 The Evidence of Coins 55 3.5 Apollo’s Predecessors 57 3.5.1 Paiawon 57 3.5.2 Reshep (A)mukal 57 3.5.3 Hyakinthos 57 3.6 Other Epithets of Apollo 58 3.7 Conclusions 60 4 Mystery Cults, Dionysos, and Orphism in Krete 62 4.1 Introduction 62 4.2 The Mysteries of Samothrace 62 4.3 The Eleusinian Mysteries 65 4.4 Convergence between the Orphic Tradition and the Eleusinian Mysteries 68 4.5 Kretan-born Zeus, Zagreus, and Dionysus 71 vii 4.6 Krete and the Orphic Tradition 73 4.6.1 Krete in Orphic Theogonies 73 4.6.2 Diodorus’ Kretan Sources, Orpheus, and the Orphic Tradition 76 4.6.3 The Gold Tablets and Mnemosyne 79 4.6.4 Pindar and Sicily 80 4.7 Dionysiac Cult and Orphic Tradition 82 4.8 Conclusions 85 5 Cults of Gods other than Zeus, Apollo, and Dionysos 87 5.1 Introduction 87 5.2 Recipients of Cult 87 5.2.1 Offspring of the Titans 87 5.2.2 Offspring of Zeus 90 5.2.3 Other Panhellenic Gods 98 5.2.4 Ancient Kretan Deities 100 6 Initiation 109 6.1 Definition of Initiation and Examples in Krete 109 6.2 The Abduction of Boys according to Ephoros 114 6.3 Relationships between males in Krete 116 6.3.1 Homosexuality 116 6.3.2. Pederasty 117 6.3.3 Chaste Relationships 118 6.4 Adolescent Age-groups and the Terms used for them 120 6.5 Abduction and Initiation 120 6.5.1 The Age of Abduction 121 6.5.2 Élite or Universal Ritual? 122 6.5.3 Summary 123 6.6 Gods, Festivals and Sites Associated with Initiation 124 6.6.1 Gods and Festivals 124 6.6.2 Sites 127 6.6.3 Summary 131 6.7 Conclusions 131 7 Laws, Social Relationships, and Customs 133 7.1 Introduction 133 7.2 The Traditional Background to Kretan Law 133 viii 7.3 Ancient Written Laws 137 7.3.1 Laws from Gortyn 137 7.3.2 Laws from Other Cities 139 7.3.3 Apollo as Guardian of the Law 141 7.4 Selected Issues Arising from the Laws 142 7.4.1 Homicide and Sacred Laws 142 7.4.2 Property, Inheritance, and Adoption 144 7.5 Political and Social Matters 147 7.5.1 Politics 147 7.5.2 Parallels with Sparta 149 7.5.3 Andreia 152 7.5.4 Constitution and Social Strata 154 7.5.5 Slavery 156 7.6 Literacy in Archaic Krete 157 7.7 Summary 163 8 Sanctuaries, Common Cults, Amphictionies, and the Koinon 165 8.1 Introduction 165 8.2 Location of Sanctuaries and Common Cults 166 8.2.1 Background 166 8.2.2 Minoan Peak Sanctuaries and Sacred Caves 166 8.2.3 Rural Sanctuaries in the Early Iron Age 167 8.2.4 Frontier Sanctuaries 169 8.3 The Evidence for Kretan Amphictionies 173 8.3.1 What is an Amphictiony? 173 8.3.2 Cult Epithets 175 8.3.3 Cultic Groupings 175 8.3.4 Possible Examples of Amphictionies 177 8.3.5 Political Aspects of Amphictionies 178 8.4 The Kretan Koinon 183 8.4.1 The Epigraphic Evidence 183 8.4.2 The Gortyn/Knossos Alliance 184 8.4.3 Membership and Management 186 8.5 Summary 189 9 Colonization, Kinship, and Invention of the Past 192 9.1 Introduction 192 ix 9.2 Inward Colonization 194 9.2.1 Ancient Godlings 194 9.2.2 Waves of Settlers 196 9.2.3 Founding Legends 201 9.2.4 Sparta and Dorian Colonization 203 9.2.5 Samians, Aiginetans, and Relations between Kydonia and Athens 205 9.3 Outward Colonization 209 9.3.1 Population Issues 209 9.3.2 Minos and the Islands 210 9.3.3 Sarpedon, Miletos, and Lycia 214 9.3.4 South Italy 217 9.3.5 Sicily 219 9.3.6 Mercenaries 222 9.4 Summary: Founding Myths and Political Spin 225 9.4.1 Historical Examples 225 9.4.2 The Uses of Myth 225 9.4.3 Autochthony and Mass Migrations 226 9.4.4 Creation of Founders and Political Spin 227 9.4.5 Conclusion 228 10 Foreign Relations 229 10.1 Introduction 229 10.2 Island Status 229 10.3 Colonization History 230 10.4 Ethnicity 231 10.5 Forms of Government 233 10.5.1 Krete 233 10.5.2 Kingdoms: Cyprus and Kyrene 234 10.5.3 Sicily 234 10.5.4 Rhodes 236 10.6 Outside Influences 236 10.6.1 The Persian Empire and Persian Wars 236 10.6.2 Athens and the Aegean 238 10.6.3 The Peloponnesian War and its Aftermath 239 10.6.4 Macedon and Persia 241 10.6.5 After Alexander 242 10.6.6 Kretan Squabbles, Piracy, and Foreign Intervention 244 10.6.7 Carthage and Rome 246 10.6.8 Timber, Shipbuilding, and Seafaring 247 10.7 Krete: the Odd One Out? 249 x 11 Summary and Conclusions 252 11.1 Ground Covered 252 11.2 Recurring Themes and Unresolved Questions 256 11.3 Kretan Exceptionalism and Contributions 259 11.3.1 Cults 259 11.3.2 Customs 261 11.3.3 Outside Relations 261 11.2.3.4 Island Mystique 262 Appendix 1 Epithets of Zeus among Gods Invoked in Bilateral Treaties 263 Appendix 2 Controversy at Dreros.