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Other___________________________________________________________ University Microfilms International ORGANIZATIONAL ADAPTATION OF JAPANESE COMPANIES IN THE UNITED STATES DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University By Kinko Ito, B.A., M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 1987 Dissertation Committee: Approved by R.C. Hinkle G.J. Hinkle T. Koizumi Co-advisors Department of Sociology Copyright by Kinko Ito 1987 To My Parents ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere appreciation to Dr. Gisela J. Hinkle, Dr. Roscoe C. Hinkle, and Dr. Tetsunori Koizumi for their patience, support, and guidance throughout my graduate school days at the Ohio State University. Without them I would not have made it this far. I also want to thank the many faculty members, colleagues, and secretaries of the Department of Sociology who gave me insights about social life, psychological support, and fun. All these people made my stay in the department enjoyable and memorable. Sociology is truly a human business. Since it studies human societies and human beings in social settings, its research requires cooperation from the people studied. I feel very lucky to have met all the mangers and workers, both Japanese and American, by chance and also through the networks of their friends, acquaintances, and relatives. Had it not been for their understanding, help, and encouragement, this dissertation would have been impossible. I thank them for their kindness and contribution. I am very grateful to my friends, many of whom are international students themselves, for their understanding, friendship, and support. I will always remember those bowling nights, Casa Lupita nights, visiting Cedar Point (especially Demon Drop!), and many paseos. To my "producers", Kunio Ito and Teruko Ito, I offer sincere thanks for their unspoken yet very strong love and support throughout the years when I was absent from Japan. I am a modern woman and I may appear to value my individual aspiration and success over my filial duty, but you are always in my thoughts. To my brother Seiji, thanks for your understanding. VITA October 20th, 1957............... Born in Kasugai, Japan 1980............................. B.A. (English), Nanzan University, Nagoya, Japan 1982............................. M.A. (Sociology), The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 1982-1987........................ Graduate Teaching Associate Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Sociology Minor Field: Linguistics Studies in Social Psychology Dr. Gisela Hinkle Studies in Social Theory Dr. Roscoe Hinkle Dr. Gisela Hinkle Studies in Complex Organization Dr. Ronald Corwin Studies in Japanese Business Dr. Tetsunori Koizumi TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................... iii VITA............................................................. .iv CHAPTER PAGE I. THE PROBLEM STATED............................................. 1 II. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ORGANIZATION......................8 2.1 Organization and Society.................................9 2.2 Organization, Environment, and Adaptation............... 9 2.3 Culture as Environment............... 13 2.4 Organizations in the United States: Towad the Construction of a Hypothesis..................21 III. REVIEW OF METHODOLOGY....................................... 28 3.1 Review of Organizational Methodology.................. 28 3.2 Ideal Types and History............................... 30 3.3 Research Design - Triangulation....................... 32 3.4 Settings.............................................. 32 3.5 Entry by Networks..................................... 34 3.6 Japanese Customs and Manners - My Lebenswelt.......... 39 3.7 Interview as Methodology.............................. 40 3.8 Making Appointments With Interviewees................. 41 3.9 Interview as Interaction.............................. 42 3.10 Interview Sites....................................... 43 3.11 Situational Talk As Source of Data.................... 45 3.12 Participant Observation............................... 47 3.13 Note Taking........................................... 48 3.14 Leaving The Field..................................... 49 3.15 Keeping In Touch...................................... 50 3 .16 Transcription of Interview Tapes...................... 50 3.17 Survey Design......................................... 51 3.18 General Characteristics of The Manufacturing Sample....51 3.19 Date Collection....................................... 52 3.20 Validity.............................................. 52 IV. HISTORY AND NATURE OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS IN JAPAN AND ABROAD.......................................... 54 4.1 Brief Economic and Industrial History of Japan......... 54 4.2 Japanese Organizations in Japan........................ 60 4.3 Structural Aspects of Japanese Organizations in Japan................................................ 63 v (1) Lifetime Commitment (Shushin koyo sei).............63 (2) Recruitment........................................ 66 (3) Training In Organization (Education and Socialization)..................................... 67 (4) The Nenko Pay System and "Holism"................. 70 (5) The Decision-Making Systen (Ringi & Nemawashi).... 73 (6) Slow Evaluation and Promotion......................75 4.4 Informal Organization And The Problem Of Solidarity....76 (1) Sense of Belonging -- Identification.............. 76 (2) Tsukiai (Afterwork fraternalization).............. 77 (3) Oyabun-kobun (Godfather - Godson)..................79 (4) Sempai-kohai (Senior -junior)......................81 (5) Implicit Control Mechanisms........................82 4.5 Japanese Organizations Abroad..........................83 (1) Kikkoman........................................... 84 (2) C. Itoh & Sumitomo.................................85 (3) Matsushita Quasar.................................. 88 V. A STUDY OF ADAPTATION OF JAPANESE BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS IN THE AMERICAN MIDWEST....................................... 96 5.1 Structural and Managerial Practices.....................96 (1) General Structure of Organization...................96 (2) Recruitment......................................... 98 ( 3 ) Training........................................... 100 (4) The Pay System, Benefits, and Holism...............100 (5) Ringi Decision-Making System.......................106 (6) Teamwork and Cooperation........................... 108 (7) Egalitarianism............................ 110 5 .2 Enhancing Social Solidarity in the United States...... Ill (1) Social Activities and Social Relations............ Ill (2) The Family Feeling and Job Satisfaction........... 115 5.3 Work Assessments of the American and Japanese Workers: Similarities and Differences..................115 (1) The American Workers............................... 118 (2) The American Attitude Toward The Japanese........