Wind power in cold climate, Appendix – R&D-projects REPORT Wind Power in cold climate 5 September 2011 By: Elin Andersen, Elin Börjesson, Päivi Vainionpää & Linn Silje Undem Revised by: Christian Peterson Approved by: Eva-Britt Eklöf Assignment ref.: 10152935 Dated: 5 September 2011 Wind power in cold climate Revised: Christian Peterson Representative: Eva-Britt Eklöf Status: Final Report REPORT Wind power in cold climate Client Nordic Energy Research Stenbergsgatan 25 N-0170 Oslo NORGE Consultant WSP Environmental Box 13033 402 51 Göteborg Visitors: Rullagergatan 4 Phone: +46 31 727 25 00 Fax: +46 31 727 25 01 WSP Environment & Energy Sweden Corporate identity no.: 556057-4880 Reg. office: Stockholm www.wspgroup.se Contacts Eva-Britt Eklöf Phone: +46 31 727 28 93 Email: [email protected] 0 . 1 r e v 2 (77) Assignment ref.: 10152935 Dated: 5 September 2011 Wind power in cold climate Revised: Christian Peterson Representative: Eva-Britt Eklöf Status: Final Report Table of Contents 1 EXECUTIVESUMMARY............................................................................6 2 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................10 2.1 Background ......................................................................................................... 10 2.2 Objectives and scope of work .............................................................................. 10 2.3 Methodology ....................................................................................................... 11 3 NATIONALCONDITIONSANDSUMMARIES....................................12 3.1 Denmark ............................................................................................................. 12 3.1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 12 3.1.2 Climate ............................................................................................................ 13 3.1.3 Research and development .............................................................................. 13 3.2 Finland ................................................................................................................ 14 3.2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 14 3.2.2 Climate ............................................................................................................ 15 3.2.3 Research and development .............................................................................. 16 3.3 Norway................................................................................................................ 18 3.3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 18 3.3.2 Climate ............................................................................................................ 18 3.3.3 Research and development .............................................................................. 18 3.4 Sweden ............................................................................................................... 19 3.4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 19 3.4.2 Climate ............................................................................................................ 19 3.4.3 Research and development .............................................................................. 19 3.5 Canada ................................................................................................................ 20 3.5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 20 3.5.2 Climate and geography .................................................................................... 21 3.5.3 Research and development .............................................................................. 22 3.6 Reflections .......................................................................................................... 23 4 CONDITIONSFORICING......................................................................23 4.1 Weather conditions and different types of icing .................................................. 24 4.1.1 Precipitation icing ............................................................................................ 24 4.1.2 In-cloud icing ................................................................................................... 25 4.1.3 Hoar frost ........................................................................................................ 26 4.2 Geographical impact ........................................................................................... 26 4.3 Ice build-up and appearance on wind turbines .................................................... 26 4.4 Reflections .......................................................................................................... 27 5 EFFECTSOFICING.................................................................................27 5.1 Production losses ................................................................................................ 27 5.1.1 Results from case studies ................................................................................. 30 5.2 Turbine loads....................................................................................................... 31 5.2.1 On-going tests and measures ........................................................................... 32 5.3 Influence on expected lifetime of components.................................................... 32 0 . 1 5.4 Uncertainties in production forecasts.................................................................. 33 r e v 5.5 Power curves do not match ................................................................................. 33 3 (77) Assignment ref.: 10152935 Dated: 5 September 2011 Wind power in cold climate Revised: Christian Peterson Representative: Eva-Britt Eklöf Status: Final Report 5.6 Increase of blade generated noise ....................................................................... 33 5.7 Safety threats due to ice throw ........................................................................... 33 5.7.1 Risk assessment of ice throw ............................................................................ 34 5.8 Reflections .......................................................................................................... 36 6 MEASUREMENTSANDPREDICTIONOFICEACCRETION............36 6.1 Measurement of icing parameters ...................................................................... 37 6.2 Ice detection methods and instruments .............................................................. 38 6.2.1 On-going tests ................................................................................................. 39 6.3 Heated anemometers .......................................................................................... 40 6.4 Ice mapping and other methods for forecasts of icing ......................................... 40 6.5 Classification of sites, measurement instruments and icing prevention systems . 42 6.6 Reflections .......................................................................................................... 42 7 METHODSFORDE-ICINGANDICINGPREVENTION.....................43 7.1 Blade heating ...................................................................................................... 44 7.2 Ice-repellent coating............................................................................................ 45 7.3 Black paint........................................................................................................... 46 7.4 Chemicals ............................................................................................................ 47 7.5 Flexible blade/active pitching .............................................................................. 47 7.6 Mechanical .......................................................................................................... 47 7.7 Microwaves ......................................................................................................... 47 7.8 Reflections .......................................................................................................... 48 8 ECONOMICASPECTSOFICING...........................................................48 8.1 Increased loads ................................................................................................... 48 8.2 Insurance............................................................................................................. 49 8.3 Production losses and costs ................................................................................. 49 8.4 Maintenance ....................................................................................................... 50 8.5 Financial losses .................................................................................................... 50 8.6 Safety regulations ............................................................................................... 50 8.7 Mapping of ice..................................................................................................... 50 8.8 Expensive measurements of wind climate and icing ............................................ 51 8.9 Cost