Data Papers on Papua New Guinea Languages Volume 60 Participant Referencing in Gumawana Narrative Clif Olson 2014 SIL-PNG Academic Publications Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea Papers in the series Data Papers on Papua New Guinea Languages express the authors’ knowledge at the time of writing. They normally do not provide a comprehensive treatment of the topic and may contain analyses which will be modified at a later stage. However, given the large number of undescribed languages in Papua New Guinea, SIL- PNG feels that it is appropriate to make these research results available at this time. René van den Berg, Series Editor Copyright © 2014 SIL-PNG Papua New Guinea [email protected] Published 2014 Printed by SIL Printing Press Ukarumpa, Eastern Highlands Province Papua New Guinea ISBN 9980 0 3912 4 Table of Contents Maps, tables and figures .............................................................................................................. vi Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... viii 1. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................9 1.1 Location and speakers ....................................................................................................9 1.2 Language name ............................................................................................................11 1.3 Language affiliation and earlier studies .......................................................................11 1.4 Dialects ........................................................................................................................13 1.5 Language use and bilingualism ....................................................................................14 1.6 Gumawana culture .......................................................................................................15 1.6.1 Economy .........................................................................................................15 1.6.2 Transportation .................................................................................................15 1.6.3 Education .........................................................................................................16 1.6.4 Religion ...........................................................................................................17 1.6.5 Kula trading .....................................................................................................17 1.6.6 Clan structure ..................................................................................................17 2. Language Overview .............................................................................................................18 2.1 Phonology ....................................................................................................................18 2.1.1 Phonemes ........................................................................................................18 2.1.2 Stress ...............................................................................................................20 2.1.3 Vowel lengthening ..........................................................................................20 2.2 Pronouns ......................................................................................................................21 2.3 Numbers .......................................................................................................................22 2.4 Word order ...................................................................................................................23 2.5 Verb structure ..............................................................................................................24 2.5.1 Transitivity ......................................................................................................25 2.5.2 Aspect ..............................................................................................................26 2.5.3 Verbless clauses ..............................................................................................28 2.6 Body part idioms and noun incorporation....................................................................28 2.7 Negation .......................................................................................................................29 2.8 Adjectives and adverbs ................................................................................................30 2.9 Demonstratives ............................................................................................................31 2.10 Possessive system ........................................................................................................34 2.11 Conjunctions and particles ...........................................................................................35 3. Methodology ........................................................................................................................40 3.1 Procedures used ...........................................................................................................40 3.2 Sentence articulation types ..........................................................................................41 3.3 Point of departure ........................................................................................................43 iii 4. Strategy of participant referencing ................................................................................... 46 5. Participant encoding and status ......................................................................................... 49 5.1 Participant encoding .................................................................................................... 49 5.1.1 Zero anaphora ................................................................................................. 49 5.1.2 Pronominal affixes .......................................................................................... 50 5.1.3 Independent pronoun ....................................................................................... 51 5.1.4 Noun phrase .................................................................................................... 52 5.2 Participant status .......................................................................................................... 53 5.2.1 Major participants ........................................................................................... 54 5.2.2 Minor participants ........................................................................................... 60 5.2.3 Props ............................................................................................................... 61 6. Activation of participants ................................................................................................... 62 6.1 Activation states .......................................................................................................... 62 6.2 Encoding contexts for Gumawana ............................................................................... 63 6.3 Initial activation of brand-new participants – context INT .......................................... 69 6.3.1 Cognitive tasks of activation ........................................................................... 69 6.3.2 Activation of participants into new mental representation .............................. 70 6.3.3 Activation of participants into an established mental representation .............. 72 6.3.3.1 Non-subject position ...................................................................... 73 6.3.3.2 Association with an existing schema .............................................. 74 6.3.3.3 Association with another participant .............................................. 74 6.3.3.4 Lists ................................................................................................ 76 6.3.3.5 Known participants ........................................................................ 76 6.3.3.6 In quotations ................................................................................... 76 6.4 Default encoding of continuing reference ................................................................... 77 6.4.1 Continuing reference after narrative clauses: context S1/N1 .......................... 77 6.4.2 Continuing reference after direct speech: context S2/N2 ................................ 81 6.5 Change of role: context S3/N3 .................................................................................... 86 6.6 Default encoding for accessible participants: context S4/N4 ...................................... 94 6.6.1 Activation of a textually accessible participant ............................................... 95 6.6.2 Activation of inferentially accessible participant .......................................... 102 6.6.3 Activation of a situationally accessible participant ....................................... 104 6.7 Default encoding rules ............................................................................................... 106 6.8 Changing referring expressions within a story .......................................................... 107 6.9 More than default