i Tactics – analysed and described by Warren Edgar FARMER Graduate Certificate of Management Batchelor of Professional Studies Submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Masters of Justice (Research) School of Justice Faculty of Law Queensland University of Technology 2019 ii Keywords: tactics, strategy, techniques, decision, decision making, conflict, delineation between tactics and strategy, relationship of tactics to techniques, tactics as an art and science iii Abstract This thesis analyses and describes tactics in resolution of conflict. The relationship and delineation between strategy and tactics, both being inherent to conflict, is poorly articulated. Consequently, tactics are inadequately defined, understood and applied. They are frequently confused with physical application of a technique rather than addressing the psychology and science inherent in decision attainment. This definitional inadequacy results in actions that are neither efficient, effective or ethical. Tactics are determined to be not only decision making but the attainment and sustaining of the decision sought in keeping with higher order intentions and constraints in conflict situations. iv Contents Page Chapter 1 – Introduction The gap 2 The dilemma and importance of definition 2 Why the gap must be filled – the provision of a definition 3 How the gap will be filled by this thesis 4 Research Aim 4 Research Objective 4 Research Outcome 5 Research Questions 5 Methodology 5 Chapter 2 – Literature Review - definitions Definitions 8 Etymological roots 10 General English Usage of the term tactics 12 Military usage 13 Conclusion 17 Chapter 3 – Literature Review - relationships Relationships 18 Relationship to strategy 18 Relationship to understanding, problem solving and decision making 21 Relationship to advantage 23 Relationship to science 25 Conclusion 30 Chapter 4 – The science of decision making Overview 33 The physical component 34 The mental component 35 Inhibitions 37 Motivation 37 Ethics 38 Perception and dominance 40 Conclusion 42 Chapter 5 – Analysis of a decision Analysis of a decision 44 The relationship of actions to advantage 48 Adaptation 50 Advantage 51 The conditions necessary for attainment of a decision 54 Security 54 Audacity 60 Shock 61 v Deception 62 Initiative 63 Decisive ratio 63 Simplicity 64 Command 68 Control 69 Tempo 69 Reaction 70 Sustainment 70 Support 71 Pressure 72 Cost 73 Chapter 6 – Theory proposal Theory proposal 78 Case studies – Decision Model 80 The relationship of actions, effects, conditions, their attainment and success 81 Chapter 7 – Theory Test Case Study – The Battle for Gona Introduction 82 Application of the decision model and relationship matrix to the Case Study 82 Environment 83 The battle – an overview 85 The strategic situation 85 The strategic aim 88 Operational situation 89 Operational objectives 95 The Battle 95 The battle for Gona – operational objectives 105 Underpinning military science 108 Conditions for decision attainment 111 Security 111 Audacity 112 Shock 112 Deception 113 Initiative 114 Decisive Ratio 115 Simplicity 117 Command and Control 117 Tempo 118 Reaction 119 Sustainment 120 Support 120 Pressure 121 Cost 122 vi Judgement of effectiveness 124 Case study – findings 129 Assessment of decision model, the relationship matrix and tactics definition 130 Chapter 8 - Conclusion Tactics – its relationship to strategy 134 Tactics – its factors and elements 134 Tactics defined 135 Bibliography 138 vii List of Diagrams and Figures Chapter 5 Figure 5-1: Effects required to generate the condition of Security 59 Figure 5-2: Effects required to generate the condition of Simplicity 68 Figure 5-3: Effects required to generate the condition of Sustainment 77 Chapter 6 Figure 6-1: Decision Model 79 Chapter 7 Figure 7-1: Relationship of strategic aim to operational objectives and consequent decisions to the capture of Gona 106 Table 7-1: Attainment of Operational Objectives - battle of Gona 107 Figure 7-2: Relationship of action to effects and attainment of security 116 Figure 7-3: Relationship of action to effects and attainment of simplicity 120 Figure 7-4: Relationship of action of effects and attainment of sustainment 124 Figure 7-5: Relationships inherent in tactics applicable to the battle for Gona 132 Chapter 8 Figure 8-1: Relationships and requirements inherent in tactics 136 viii Abbreviations and acronyms This thesis contains no abbreviations or acronyms requiring further explanation. ix Statement of Original Authorship The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made. QUT Verified Signature Warren FARMER 30 December 2019 x Statement of Acknowledgement The work in any thesis is never completed in total isolation; it always has several significant influences. I therefore wish to acknowledge the influence of my mother who initially encouraged my curiosity and established the desire to learn in me. Her efforts have been perpetuated after her passing by the encouragement of my brothers Roland and Shuan. I also wish to acknowledge the many of my colleagues in the Australian Army that entertained discussions on much of what is contained within this endeavour. This includes the naysayers who variously told me to not think that I knew tactics or that it was something innate rather than something that could be acquired through study and learning. Due recognition must also be given to the guidance of the famous military theorist Carl von Clausewitz whose goal for any theory was: Theory will have fulfilled its main task if used to analyse the constituent elements of war, to distinguish precisely what at first sight seems fused, to explain in full the properties of the means employed and to show their probable effects, to define clearly the nature of the ends in view, and to illuminate all phases of warfare in a thorough critical enquiry. Theory then becomes a guide to anyone who wants to learn about war from books; it will light his way, ease his progress, train his judgement, and help him to avoid pitfalls.1 The efforts and patience of my supervisory team of Doctor Carmel O’Sullivan and Professor Mark Lauch cannot be praised or appreciated too much. Finally, the perseverance, support and consideration given by my wife while I have disappeared into another world, yet again, must be lauded. As always, any and all errors or omissions are mine alone. 1 Clausewitz C von, 1982, On War, ed. A Rapoport, Penguin, Harmondsworth, p 141. 1 Tactics – analysed and described Chapter One – Introduction As will be demonstrated in the literature review neither the component elements of tactics nor the concept of tactics as a whole is articulated with any great degree of fidelity or clarity in either general or professional arenas. A simple internet search using the parameters ‘tactics’, ‘tactics definition’ or ‘strategy tactics difference’ rapidly results in counts exceeding half a million hits.2 Those results generate four observations. The first observation is that the terms tactics and strategy, and their definitions, often overlap and are confused. The second is a subservient placement of tactics to strategy. The third observation is that tactics are limited to discrete physical actions. Tactics are not described as something conceptual, abstract or anchored in science. The fourth observation is that tactics is mentioned in terms of a conflict or contention. These four observations appear to be based on two assumptions. The first assumption is that tactics are apparent and known, that is well defined, adequately described and known. The second underpinning assumption appears to be that there is vacillation between the ideas that tactics are either imposed, almost without consideration of opposition, or that as any issue is decided on chance due to the presence and interaction of an enemy or opponent. Both views then seem to generate a stance that therefore the subject defies description or understanding. If the currently available definitions lack adequate description and are confusing the question must then be posed as to why this situation exists. Put differently, what is it that is missing or understood? Could it be that tactics, given the emphasis on discrete physical actions, are less confused with strategy but more so with techniques? This academic effort is derived from the above observations and deductions. 2 An example is: Minuteshttps://dougseven.com/2013/02/12/strategy-the-art-of-the-product-manager/ 2 The gap This thesis will demonstrate that when placed under scrutiny, tactics are revealed to be profoundly ambiguous and full of latent meaning and contradiction – they are inadequately described – their theory is “formless, chaotic, and inconsistent”.3 This thesis seeks to address the identified gap by providing a more complete description of tactics which may assist where competition and contention apply. The dilemma and importance of definition A definition is a description or explanation of a word or thing, by its attributes, properties, or relations, that distinguishes it from all other things.4 Based on a view that how we conceptualise and understand something has a direct correlation to how we then employ that concept the relevance of a comprehensive definition is important.5 A complete description (definition) of tactics