© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © JonesChapter & Bartlett Learning, 1LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Philosophy of Science: © Jones & Bartlett Learning,An Introduction LLC © Jones and & Bartlett a Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORGrounding DISTRIBUTION for NOTYour FOR SALE Practice OR DISTRIBUTION E. Carol Polifroni © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION INTRODUCTION Philosophy of science is a perspective—a lens, a way you see the world, and, in the case © Jonesof &advanced Bartlett practice Learning, nurses, theLLC viewpoint the nurse acts ©from Jones in every & Bartlettencounter Learning,with a LLC patient, family, or group. A person’s philosophy of science creates the frame on a picture—a NOT FORmessage SALE that OR becomes DISTRIBUTION a paradigm and a point of reference.NOT Each individual’sFOR SALE philosophy OR DISTRIBUTION of science will permit some things to be seen and cause others to be blocked. It allows people to be open to some thoughts and potentially keeps them closed to others. A philosophy will deem some ideas correct, others inconsistent, and some simply wrong. While philoso- © Jones & Bartlett Learning,phy of science LLC is not meant to be viewed ©as Jonesa black or& whiteBartlett proposition, Learning, it does LLC provide NOT FOR SALE ORperspectives DISTRIBUTION that include some ideas and thoughts;NOT FOR therefore, SALE it ORmust DISTRIBUTION unavoidably exclude others. The key is to ensure that the ideas and thoughts within a given philosophy remain consistent with one another, rather than being in opposition. Discussions of science, philosophy, and the philosophy of science can fill entire books. This chapter introduces readers to these topics. It is constructed in the form of a survey and is designed© Jones to launch & inquiryBartlett in myriad Learning, ways. TheLLC purpose is to encourage ©you Jones as a nurse & Bartlett Learning, LLC to thinkNOT in ways FOR that SALEyou may OR not DISTRIBUTION yet have discovered and to examine yourNOT assumptions FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and actions in your role as advanced practice nurses. If you leave this chapter without questioning your assumptions, the author has not done her job! One must appreciate the personal assumptions used in everyday professional life. Nurses, for example, must ques- © Jonestion & theirBartlett assumptions Learning, and reaffirm LLC (appreciate and understand)© Jones what & it Bartlett is they believe. Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • 1 • © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC.© NOTJones FOR SALE& Bartlett OR DISTRIBUTION Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 9781284112245_CH01.indd 1 29/11/16 6:12 PM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 2 • CHAPTER 1 PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE: AN INTRODUCTION AND A GROUNDING FOR YOUR PRACTICE © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC SCIENCENOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Before the concept of a philosophy of science is examined in greater depth and particular philosophies of science are specifically explored, it is important to begin by developing an appreciation of the meaning of the terms science and philosophy. Science, which comes © Jonesfrom & theBartlett Latin word Learning, scientia, LLCmeaning “knowledge,” traditionally© Jones refers & toBartlett both processes Learning, LLC NOT FORand SALEthe outcomes OR DISTRIBUTION of processes, such as general laws and NOTobservations. FOR SALE General OR laws DISTRIBUTION are the laws of nature that guide physical life, such as the laws of gravity, energy, and motion. Generators of science use these laws in a systematic way to create a body of knowledge about a specific topic. The culmination of using the scientific method (systematic process) provides a set of data (evidence) supported by propositions about an area of study (Boyd, © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Gasper, & Trout, LLC 1991). © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Natural (Hard) Sciences As an outcome, science is a body of knowledge. Physics, mathematics, and chemistry are three examples of scientific disciplines composed of unique bodies of knowledge. These sciences© are Jones often classified & Bartlett as natural Learning, sciences LLC because they employ the general© Jones laws & of Bartlett Learning, LLC nature andNOT begin FOR with SALE the physical OR DISTRIBUTION notion of the world. These natural sciencesNOT FOR (which SALE OR DISTRIBUTION are also sometimes referred to as the physical sciences) are also known as pure sciences. “Pure,” in this context, means a unique definitive body of knowledge. A pure science is independent of others; it is able to stand alone, and it may be developed and furthered © Jonesfor & the Bartlett abstract Learning,cause of the knowledgeLLC itself. Pure science© is Jonesnot pursued & Bartlett for its utility Learning, or LLC value or application per se. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Natural and pure sciences are based on the assumption that reality is objective, rather than subjective. As a result of this objectivity, natural science is consistent; in other words, it is reproducible and reliable. Natural science further encompasses the assumption that human beings have the capacity to be accurate and consistent in their objectivity. © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Natural scientistsLLC believe that explanations© Jones (obtained & Bartlett using the Learning, method described LLC later NOT FOR SALE ORin DISTRIBUTION this chapter) are present within the naturalNOT or realFOR world. SALE As a ORconsequence, DISTRIBUTION explanations are reasonable, constant and consistent, accurate, objective, discoverable, and understand- able. Owing to its basis in objectivity, natural science is predicated on the belief that there is an external world structure independent of self that is grounded in reliability. Natural physical sciences are referred to as hard science. In recent years, quantum physicists© haveJones begun & toBartlett integrate Learning, the role of the LLC observer into their discipline,© whichJones is still& Bartlett Learning, LLC categorizedNOT as FORa hard SALEscience. ORThis DISTRIBUTIONconundrum will be addressed as part of NOTthe discussion FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION of complexity science found later in this chapter. Examples of the physical sciences present in health care include the biophysical and biochemical processes related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Using the © Jonesphysical & Bartlett sciences Learning, in health care LLC involves assuming a disease© Jones focus, rather & Bartlett than a Learning,person LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC.© NOTJones FOR SALE& Bartlett OR DISTRIBUTION Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 9781284112245_CH01.indd 2 29/11/16 6:12 PM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Science • 3 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC focus. TheNOT science FOR is about SALE diagnosis, OR DISTRIBUTION treatment, and outcomes of treatment.NOT It is about FOR side SALE OR DISTRIBUTION effects and it is about pathology. The concentration is on objectivity, consistent application, and the creation of algorithms of predictability. © Jones &Applied Bartlett (Soft) Learning, Sciences LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORSociology, SALE psychology, OR DISTRIBUTION and anthropology are three examplesNOT of appliedFOR SALE sciences. OR Applied DISTRIBUTION sciences have their own unique body of knowledge, albeit a different one than is found in the natural sciences category, and in combination with others. They are known as applied sciences because the focus is on the application of related knowledge, usually to meet some human need (and not to generate knowledge for the sake of knowledge). Additionally, © Jones & Bartlett Learning,the word “applied” LLC is used to convey the ©understanding Jones & Bartlett that, in the Learning, development LLC of their NOT FOR SALE ORown DISTRIBUTION knowledge, applied scientists use theNOT knowledge FOR from SALE the ORpure DISTRIBUTIONsciences. Sociologists, who study people and behavior, rely on and use the natural sciences and their inherent assumptions to further their work. Thus sociology is an applied science. Mathematicians and physicists do not use psychology or sociology to add knowledge to their scientific disciplines,© Jones because & mathematics Bartlett Learning, and physics LLCare pure sciences, whereas psychology© Jones and& Bartlett Learning, LLC sociologyNOT are appliedFOR SALE sciences. OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Although applied scientists use what they deem accurate and appropriate from the natural sciences, they do not subscribe to the rigid belief of objectivity and reliability. In applied science, the focus is on human beings and the