Defining Boundaries Between Two Immigrant Waves From Latvia: A Study of Latvian Supplementary Schools in the U.S. A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA Ilze Garoza IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS Professor Peter Demerath, Adviser Professor Gerald Fry, Co-adviser August, 2011 © Ilze Garoza 2011 Acknowledgements I would like to express my deep gratitude to my adviser Dr. Peter Demerath and co-adviser Dr. Gerald Fry for all the guidance and support they provided me throughout the thesis writing. I also want to extend my special thanks to professor Andris Straumanis, University of Wisconsin – River Falls, who generously shared his expertise, time, and advice in launching my research project, reaching out to the community, as well as his invaluable and critical feedback on my findings about Latvians in the United States. This study would not have come about if not for the extraordinary responsiveness of the Latvian community. There are no words to thank enough the Latvian supplementary school principals who provided me access to their schools; to teachers and parents, as well as the Latvian community leaders, who shared their stories, insights, and experiences. My special thanks goes to the Latvian community in Minnesota, which has been my “home” for the last three years and whose support and financial assistance allowed me to participate in various Latvian events around the United States. This study would not have come about also without the generous support of the Immigration History Research Center (IHRC) staff and directors Dr. Donna R. Gabaccia and Dr. Haven Elizabeth Hawley. I thank the IHRC for issuing me the fellowship of the American Latvian Association, which allowed me to pursue my research wholeheartedly. In addition, Dr. Gabaccia and Dr. Hawley have been the greatest mentors I could possibly i have and their impact on me is beyond what they can imagine. I would also want to extend my appreciation to the Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies for issuing me Dr. Grundmanis’s fellowship, and the National Society of Colonial Dames of America, Association of Latvian Organizations in Minnesota, and Latvian organization “Daugavas Vanagi” for supporting me financially and morally in my academic endeavors. Altogether, I owe deep gratitude to many student-oriented personnel at the University of Minnesota. The late Dr. Dick Nunnely provided me invaluable support in navigating the academic program requirements. Dr. Amy Garrett Dikkers made me work hard to think through my research questions. Thomas A. Lindsey and Andrew Sell at College of Liberal Arts Office of Information Technology Survey Services shared their knowledge and advice in processing and analyzing my survey data. I would like to thank my family in Latvia and my host-family in Wisconsin, my boyfriend, and my friends for their immeasurable support and encouragement. I extend my appreciation to Aditi Arur who was my writing buddy at the Dunn Bros coffee shop throughout the last several months of the thesis writing. Dr. Vichet Chhuon gave me the push that I needed at the time when the thesis writing was not going so well. My heartfelt thanks go to Ģiga family, Indulis Valters, Laila Švalbe, Indra Halvorsone, and Eva Tone for their care. My appreciation goes out also to Dr. Paulis and Irēne Lazdas and Dr. Aina Galējs - Dravnieks, who have greatly fostered my academic aspirations. Lastly, I wanted to thank everybody who has been part of my academic and personal life during the past several years. ii In memory of my mother To my dear brothers iii Abstract Since the collapse of the Soviet Union and reestablishment of Latvia’s independence in 1991, followed by removal of the Soviet-imposed restrictions on human mobility, there has been an exodus of Latvians to Western countries, some of which, such as the U.S., already had substantial populations of Latvians since the last wave of emigration took place during World War II. Consequently, two parallel and mutually detached Latvian communities have emerged in the U.S. – one consisting of World War II refugees and their descendants, the second – a largely scattered community of post- independence immigrants from Latvia, both of whom embody different migration experiences and expressions of Latvian identity. This interdisciplinary mixed methods study of intergroup relationships between Latvian Americans and post-independence immigrants from Latvia, conducted through the network of Latvian supplementary schools in the United States, which is the main site where they come together, capture the current status of the relationships and expose existing barriers that set the two groups apart. In the end, this study investigates what role Latvian supplementary schools play in bridging the two groups. iv Anotācija Kopš Padomju Savienības sabrukuma un Latvijas neatkarības atjaunošanas 1991.gadā, kam sekoja Padomju varas ieviesto pārvietošanās ierobežojumu atcelšana, liels skaits latviešu devušies dzīvot, strādāt un mācīties uz Rietumvalstīm. Šis post- padomju emigrācijas vilnis vairākās no izvēlētajām mītnes zemēm, tajā skaitā Amerikas Savienotajās Valstīs, atdūrās pret jau tur eksistējošām latviešu kopienām, kuras četrdesmit gadus iepriekš bija radījuši Otrā pasaules kara rezultātā Latviju pametušie bēgļi un viņu pēcteči. Šo vēsturisko notikumu rezultātā Amerikas Savienotajās Valstīs izveidojušās divas paralēlas un lielā mērā savstarpēji atrautas latviešu kopienas, katru no kuras raksturo atšķirīga emigrācijas pieredze un atšķirīgas latviskās identitātes izpausmes. Šis starpdisciplinārais pētījums, kas īstenots caur latviešu skolu tīklu Amerikā un kura ietvaros veikta gan skolu, gan ar skolu saistītu personu aptauja, intervijas ar latviešu kopienu pārstāvjiem Amerikā, dokumentu analīze un novērojumi latviešu kopienu un organizāciju dzīvē, cenšas apzināt, kādas ir pastāvošās attiecības starp diviem latviešu emigrācijas viļņiem Amerikā, kādas ir galvenās barjeras savstarpējo attiecību veidošanā un kādu lomu spēlē latviešu sestdienas un svētdienas skolas šo barjeru pārvarēšanā. v Table of Contents List of tables and graphs .................................................................................................... viii 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Placing the Study Within Existing Disciplinary Literature ......................................... 3 1.2. Studying Two Waves of Immigration From Latvia ......................................................... 5 1.3. Managing Researcher’s Bias .................................................................................................. 9 1.4. Thesis Contents ....................................................................................................................... 11 2. Conceptual Models for Studying Immigrant Communities ................................. 14 2.1. Voluntary Versus Involuntary Transnational Movements ...................................... 14 2.2. From Assimilation to Transnationalism ........................................................................ 18 2.3. Factors Influencing Immigrant Acculturation .............................................................. 22 2.4. Ethnic Identity and Identity Politics ................................................................................ 26 2.5. Distinction Between In-Group and Out-Group ............................................................. 28 2.6. Ethnic Identity Transmission Through Supplementary Schools ........................... 33 3. Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 37 3.1. Mixed Methods Research ..................................................................................................... 37 3.1.1. Qualitative data collection. ............................................................................................................. 38 3.1.2. Quantitative data collection. ........................................................................................................... 39 3.2. Data Collection Procedures ................................................................................................ 39 3.3. Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 46 3.4. Strategies for Validating Findings .................................................................................... 47 4. Latvian Émigrés and Immigrants in the United States ......................................... 50 4.1. The Long Road of Latvian Émigrés ................................................................................... 50 4.1.1. Left under the cover of night. ......................................................................................................... 52 4.1.2. Dream of return. ................................................................................................................................. 52 4.1.3. Rite of passage through DP camps. .............................................................................................. 53 4.1.4. A high level of political engagement. .......................................................................................... 55 4.1.5. Preserving the “true” and “authentic” Latvianness. ...............................................................