THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: A REEVALUATION OF CULTURAL IDENTITY AND “EGYPTIANIZATION” IN LOWER NUBIA DURING THE NEW KINGDOM A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE DIVISION OF THE HUMANITIES IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF NEAR EASTERN LANGUAGES AND CIVILIZATIONS BY LINDSEY RAE-MARIE WEGLARZ CHICAGO, ILLINOIS JUNE 2017 Copyright © 2017 Lindsey Rae-Marie Weglarz All rights reserved Table of Contents List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. viii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... ix Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... x Chapter 1 : Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 Historical Background ................................................................................................................................ 3 Lower Nubia before the New Kingdom ................................................................................................. 3 The Conquest ........................................................................................................................................ 8 Integration of Lower Nubia into the Egyptian Administrative and Economic System ......................... 11 The Question of the “Egyptianization” of Lower Nubia ........................................................................... 18 Outline of the Dissertation ...................................................................................................................... 23 Chapter 2 : Understanding Identity, Ethnicity, and Gender in the Context of Egyptian and Nubian Cultural Entanglement .............................................................................................................................................. 26 Peoples, Cultures, and Ethnic Identity ..................................................................................................... 26 Processual and Post-processual Developments .................................................................................. 28 Identity and Gender ............................................................................................................................ 31 Ethnic and Cultural Identity in Lower Nubia ............................................................................................ 35 Egyptianization: Processes and Explanations ...................................................................................... 36 A New Model: Cultural Entanglement ................................................................................................. 45 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 53 Chapter 3 : The Study of Inequality and the Role of Mortuary Studies ...................................................... 55 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 55 The Study of Inequality ............................................................................................................................ 57 Accessing Inequality through Mortuary Data ...................................................................................... 59 Previous Mortuary Studies ...................................................................................................................... 68 Predynastic Studies ............................................................................................................................. 68 Mortuary Studies of Pharaonic Egypt .................................................................................................. 73 Nubian Studies .................................................................................................................................... 78 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................. 80 Chapter 4 : The 18th Dynasty Cemeteries of Lower Nubia .......................................................................... 81 The Sites .................................................................................................................................................. 81 The Scandinavian Joint Expedition (SJE) .............................................................................................. 86 iii The Oriental Institute Nubian Expedition Concession (OINE) .............................................................. 95 Comparing the Material from the OINE and SJE.................................................................................... 104 Ceramics ............................................................................................................................................ 104 The Chronological Phasing of Lower Nubian Cemeteries ...................................................................... 109 Early 18th Dynasty (Ahmose through Thutmose II) ............................................................................ 111 Mid-18th Dynasty (Hatshepsut/Thutmose III through Thutmose IV) ................................................. 117 Late 18th Dynasty (Amenhotep III through Horemheb) ..................................................................... 126 Chronology of the Lower Nubian Cemeteries ................................................................................... 128 The Implications of Re-dating Fadrus ................................................................................................ 132 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 142 Chapter 5 : Socioeconomic and Cultural Change in Lower Nubian Burials .............................................. 143 Quantifying the Dataset ........................................................................................................................ 144 Socioeconomic Change during the 18th Dynasty ................................................................................... 148 The Pharaonic Sites ........................................................................................................................... 148 The New Kingdom Nubian Sites ........................................................................................................ 154 The Effect of Age and Sex on Burial Practices ....................................................................................... 156 Age and Burial Treatment.................................................................................................................. 158 Biological Sex and Burial Treatment .................................................................................................. 170 Evidence of Cultural Entanglement ....................................................................................................... 181 What is Nubian? ................................................................................................................................ 181 The Pharaonic Sites ........................................................................................................................... 185 The “New Kingdom Nubian” Sites ..................................................................................................... 209 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................... 219 Chapter 6 : Conclusions ............................................................................................................................ 225 Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 225 The Process of Egyptianization .............................................................................................................. 229 The Depopulation of Lower Nubia......................................................................................................... 235 Further Questions and Avenues for Research ....................................................................................... 240 Bibliography .............................................................................................................................................. 243 Appendix I : Middle Nubian and Pharaonic Cemeteries Excavated by the SJE .......................................... 263 Appendix II : Categorization System Used for Finds .................................................................................. 268 Appendix III : List of Burials Excluded from Data Set ................................................................................. 270 Appendix IV : SJE Correspondence Analysis