UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles The Metaphor of the Divine as Planter of the People in the Hebrew Bible A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Near Eastern Languages and Cultures by Jennifer Metten Pantoja 2014 © Copyright by Jennifer Metten Pantoja 2014 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION The Metaphor of the Divine as Planter of the People in the Hebrew Bible by Jennifer Metten Pantoja Doctor of Philosophy in Near Eastern Languages and Cultures University of California, Los Angeles, 2014 Professor William M. Schniedewind, Chair In the Hebrew Bible, the God of ancient Israel, YHWH, is almost always portrayed metaphorically. He is likened to a warrior, a king, a shepherd, a rock, a bride- groom, a husband, and a master gardener, to name just a few. This study examines the emergence of the conceptual metaphor YHWH IS THE PLANTER OF THE PEOPLE in order to demonstrate that biblical literature portrays the divine/human relationship as a reflection of the natural environment. Ancient Israel was an agrarian society in which the association between the land and the religion was intertwined. The aim of this study is to trace the emergence of this specific metaphorical discourse in ancient Hebrew poetry and follow its development throughout biblical history, in order to illustrate how the deep connection to the land shaped ancient thought and belief. Within this broader, primary metaphor, the complex metaphor YHWH IS THE VINTNER OF ISRAEL will also be analyzed as an image predominant in the pre-exilic prophetic literature. Viticulture became a ii powerful icon of the developing nation, providing rich imagery for eighth century prophetic concerns. Finally, this study will investigate how the metaphorical depiction of the people as plants was re-interpreted in exilic and post-exilic literature in response to the Babylonian campaigns in the early sixth century B.C.E., which forced many people out of the land. Recent advances in cognitive linguistics, coupled with traditional historical-critical methods, as well as a survey of the material culture, will illuminate one snapshot of ancient Israel’s conception of the divine. iii The dissertation of Jennifer Metten Pantoja is approved. Ra’anan Boustan Arnold Band William M. Schniedewind, Committee Chair University of California, Los Angeles 2014 iv I dedicate this dissertation to Benoni: my true love and partner And to my children: Micah, Lucas, Justus, and Elyana You bring endless joy to my world. I thought I could, I thought I could, I thought I could… v TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables and Figures xii-xiii Abbreviations xiv-xvii Acknowledgements xviii-xix Vita xx-xxi Chapter One Metaphor: A Channel for Divine Communication 1 1.1 Overview of Argument: God is a Reflection of the Natural Environment 1 1.2 The Scope of this Study: Metaphor as a Window into Ancient Thought 9 1.3 Recent Scholarship on Metaphor: YHWH IS THE PLANTER OF THE PEOPLE 14 1.4 Outline of the Chapters of the Dissertation 17 Chapter Two Metaphor Theory: A Useful Tool for Biblical Studies 24 2.1 Introduction 24 2.2 A Brief History of Metaphor in Figurative Thought 25 2.3 The Cognitive Approach to Metaphor 31 2.4 Metaphor Theory and Biblical Studies 33 2.5 The Definition of Metaphor for this Study 37 2.6 What this Dissertation is Not 40 2.7 Conclusion 41 vi Chapter Three Common Metaphors for the Divine and Ancient Hebrew Poetry 43 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Metaphor, Myth, and Ancient Near Eastern Poetry 44 3.2.1 Introduction 44 3.2.2 Metaphor and Poetic Depictions of the Divine 46 3.2.3 Metaphor and Myth 47 3.3 Ancient Near Eastern Storm-gods: An Introduction 50 3.3.1 Ancient Mesopotamian Storm-gods: Enlil and Ishkur-Adad 52 3.3.2 Ancient Syrian Storm-god: Hadad/Baal 55 3.3.3 Ancient Israelite Storm-god: YHWH 58 3.4 Snapshots of the Divine in Early Hebrew Poetry 60 3.4.1 Introduction 60 3.4.2 The Song of Deborah (Judg 5:1-31) 61 3.4.3 The Song of Moses (Deut 32:1-43) 62 3.4.4 Habakkuk 3 64 3.4.5 The Song of the Sea (Exod 15:1-18) 66 3.4.6 Conclusion of Early Poetry 71 3.5 Conclusion 73 Chapter Four The Ancient Near Eastern Background to YHWH as Planter 75 4.1 Introduction 75 vii 4.2 Storm-gods and Plant Imagery 76 4.3 Ancient Near Eastern Temple Gardens 81 4.4 The Cosmic Mountain 83 4.5 Ancient Near Eastern Descriptions of Gods “Planting” People 87 4.5.1 Introduction 87 4.5.2 Sumerian Literature 87 4.5.3 Ugaritic Literature 90 4.5.4 Persian Literature 91 4.5.5 Conclusion to Gods “Planting” People 92 4.6 Biblical Planting Evidence 92 4.7 The Metaphor YHWH IS THE PLANTER OF THE PEOPLE 97 4.8 The Relationship between Planting and Uprooting 98 4.9 Viticulture in the Ancient Near East: An Introduction 101 4.10 Conclusion 104 Chapter Five Viticulture in Iron Age Israel 106 5.1 Introduction 106 5.2 Israel: Climate and Location 108 5.3 Ancient Israelite Vineyards 110 5.3.1 Wine Production 115 5.3.2 Wine Trade 124 5.3.2.1 Gezer Calendar 124 viii 5.3.2.2 Lmlk Jar Handles 126 5.3.2.3 Samaria Ostraca 128 5.3.2.4 Trade Outside Israel 128 5.4 Viticulture: The Biblical Picture 130 5.4.1 Agrarianism: The Ancient Israelite Worldview 130 5.4.2 Viticulture in the Hebrew Bible 136 5.4.3 Wine Enjoyment 141 5.5 Conclusion 144 Chapter Six Pre-Exilic Biblical References to Vine and Planting Imagery 146 6.1 Introduction 146 6.2 Early Vine Imagery 149 6.2.1 Introduction 149 6.2.2 The Balaam Oracles (Num. 22-24) 150 6.2.3 The Jotham Fable (Judg 9: 7-15) 151 6.2.4 The Dynastic Oracle (2 Sam 7:10) 152 6.2.5 Conclusion to Early Vine Imagery 153 6.3 The Song of the Vineyard (Isa 5:1-7) 153 6.3.1 Introduction to Song of the Vineyard 153 6.3.2 Textual Analysis of Isaiah 5:1-7 158 6.3.2.1 The Heading: Isaiah 5:1a 160 6.3.2.2 Canticle I: Isaiah 5:1b-2 162 ix 6.3.2.3 Canticle II: Isaiah 5: 3-4 165 6.3.2.4 Canticle III: Isaiah 5:5-6 166 6.3.2.5 Canticle IV: Isaiah 5:7 168 6.3.3 Reasons for the Destruction of the Vineyard 170 6.3.4 Conclusion to Isaiah 5 173 6.4 Vine Imagery in Amos, Hosea, and Micah 174 6.4.1 Introduction 174 6.4.2 Amos 175 6.4.3 Hosea 178 6.4.4 Micah 180 6.4.5 Conclusion to Eighth Century Vine Imagery 181 6.5 Conclusion 182 Chapter Seven Exilic and Post-exilic References to Vine and Planting Imagery 183 7.1 Introduction 183 7.2 Exile 185 7.2.1 Introduction 185 7.2.2 The Myth of the Empty Land 186 7.2.3 Conclusion 191 7.3 Traces of Vine Imagery in Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah 192 7.3.1 Introduction 192 7.3.2 Jeremiah 193 x 7.3.3 Ezekiel 197 7.3.4 Isaiah 27:1-6 199 7.3.5 Conclusion to Vine Imagery 203 7.4 Up-rooting and Destroying versus Building and Planting 203 7.4.1 Up-rooting and Destroying 203 7.4.2 Building and Planting 207 7.4.3 Conclusion to Up-rooting and Planting 208 7.5 Restoration Imagery 209 7.6 Conclusion 217 Excursus 1. Pseudepigrapha References to Divine as Planter/People as Plants 219 Excursus 2. Dead Sea Scroll References to Divine as Planter/People as Plants 225 Chapter Eight Conclusion 8.1 Summary and Conclusions 231 8.2 Directions for Future Research 235 Appendix 1: Hebrew Bible References to Divine as Planter/People as Plants 237 Bibliography 240 xi LIST OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS Table A Vine Imagery in Amos 176 Table B Vine Imagery in Hosea 178-79 Table C Vine Imagery in Micah 180 Table D Vine Imagery in Jeremiah 194 Table E Vine Imagery in Ezekiel 197 Table F Uprooting and Destroying 204 Table G Building and Planting 207 Table H Restoration 209-10 Table I Pseudepigrapha 220-22 Table J Dead Sea Scrolls 226-27 Illustration 1 Sumerian God of Vegetation 53 Illustration 2 Stela of the Storm-god Baal (Louvre Museum) 57 Illustration 3 Ur-Nammu Stela 77 Illustration 4 Winged, bird-headed deities and tree image 78 (King Assurnasirpal II’s Palace) Illustration 5 King Urball and the deity Santos 80 Illustration 6 Gathering Grapes and Making Wine 113 (Tomb of Nakht, Thebes) Illustration 7 Sennacherib’s army among low vines and trees 114 (Relief in Nineveh) Illustration 8 Terraced Walls (Mevasseret Yerushalayim) 117 Illustration 9 Bronze Age Winepress (Migdal Haemek) 120 xii Illustration 10 Winery, Four-rectangle plan (Ayalon screw mortice) 120 Illustration 11 A Canaanite Merchant Ship Entering Port 129 Illustration 12 The Basic Israelite Worldview 133 xiii ABBREVIATIONS AB Anchor Bible ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by D. N. Freedman. 6 vols. New York, 1992 ABRL Anchor Bible Reference Library AfO Archiv für Orientforschung AJA American Journal of Archaeology AJSL American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Edited by J.B. Pritchard.