BUILDING MATERIALS AND TECHNIQU63 IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN FRUM THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD TO THE FOURTH CENTURY AD by Hazel Dodgeq BA Thesis submitted for the Degree of'PhD at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne Decembert 1984 "When we buildq let us thinjc that we build for ever". John Ruskin (1819 - 1900) To MY FAMILY AND TU THE MEMORY OF J. B. WARD-PERKINS (1912 - 1981) i ABSTRACT This thesis deals primarily with the materials and techniques found in the Eastern Empire up to the 4th century AD, putting them into their proper historical and developmental context. The first chapter examines the development of architecture in general from the very earliest times until the beginnin .g of the Roman Empire, with particular attention to the architecture in Roman Italy. This provides the background for the study of East Roman architecture in detail. Chapter II is a short exposition of the basic engineering principles and terms upon which to base subsequent despriptions. The third chapter is concerned with the main materials in use in the Eastern Mediterranean - mudbrick, timber, stone, mortar and mortar rubble, concrete and fired brick. Each one is discussed with regard to manufacture/quarrying, general physical properties and building uses. Chapter IV deals with marble and granite in a similar way but the main marble types are described individually and distribution maps are provided for each in Appendix I. The marble trade and the use of marble in Late Antiquity are also examined. Chapter V is concerned with the different methods pf wall construction and with the associated materials. There is an enquiry into the use of fired brick and a ii comparative study of brick and mortar joint thicknesses in Rome with relation to those in the Eastern Mediterranean. Chapter VI looks at all forms of timber construction including roofing with a discusslon of the wooden roof truss. Chapter VII discusse-i the origins of the arch and vault, relating pertinent early examples to Roman usage. It is concluded that the Greeks probably played a large role in the transmission of the idea of arcuated construction to the west. The development and use of pitched-brick vaulting is also traced. In Chapter VIII the origins of domical construction are studied with examples from all over the Mediterranean. The origins of the pendentive are reviewed and a basic terminology is established in an attempt to end confusion. Chapter IX deals with epigraphic and literary evidence for the financial costs of ancient building including labour, transport and material expenses. Architects and other skilled workmen are also discussed, and there is a-study of the instance of re-use of materials in Late Antiquity and its implications. Finally Chapter X complements Chapter I in discussing architecture up to the 7th century AD in both the East and the West, tracing distinctly Eastern Roman techniques into the Byzantine period. iii PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The study of Roman building materials and techniques in the Eastern Mediterranean is an enormous and complex subject. Inherent in this and the. wide geographical area over which the field extends one also has to deal with a variety of languages with varying degrees Pf familiarity. This can cause confusion in the citation of place-names. Where possible a simple transliteration of Arabic names has has been made with the ancient name given if available. Every effort has been made to differentiate between the dotted and undotted lil of the Turkish language. The sources of all maps and diagrams are given where appropriate; elsewhere the illustrations are the author. ýs. 'Pers Obs' in the catalogues indicates personal observations; 'Pers Com. ' indicates information that has not been directly collected by the author. It will be noticed that figures 9 and 10, the sarcophagi distributions, do not have numbered locations as do the marble distribution maps in Appendix I compiled by the author. Unfortunately the most recent version of these (Ward-Perkins (1980)a) did not do so and it was felt best to reproduce them as given in the publication, with appropriate additions, without numbering the locations. Published sources of photographs are acknowledged in the appropriate place, but I should like to thank Mr Jon Coulston (Plates 17,40,122, and 1ý7), Mr Rob Burns (Plates 18 and 37), Mr Alan Rushworth (Plates 16 and 3ý), Miss Jean Greenhalgh (Plate 136), Ms Karen Griffiths (Plate 14) and Mr and Mrs J. E. Dodge (Plates 9and 1S) for the use of their photographs.. as well as the Palestine Exploration Fund for providing the photograph taken by Corporal Philips iv in 1867. This research could not have been carried out without the help of a large number of people. Firstlyr I should like to thank the DES for granting me a Major State Studentship (1980-83) to carry out the work and for funding a trip to Rome in December 1982.1 should also like to thank the British Institute for Archaeology at Ankara for granting me a travel grant in 1981; the British School for Archaeology in Jerusalem for granting me a travel award in 1982; and the British Institute at Amman for Archaeology and History for funding two field-'tri ps to the Middle East in 1981 and 1982.. In all,, 'four trips were made to Turkeyj, two to Greece, two to the Middle East and one to Italy, totalling about nine months work abroad in all. I should like to thank a number of people for their kindness, help and advice; in Jerusalemr Canon John Wil4nson, former Director of the British School, his Assistant Director., Dr Denys Pringlef and Dr Michael Burgoigne, the School Architect; in Amman, ''"' ",I"I- Mrs C. -M. Bennett, founder'aný A. former Director of the British Institute, and the present Director, Dr Andrew Garrard and his wife, Rachel. I should also like to acknbwledge the help of Mr Brian Bowen and Dr Archie Walls with transport difficulties whilst in Jordan, as well as Dr. John Strange and thebanish team at work at Umm Qais- In Rome I should like to thank. the Assistant Director of the British School at Rome, Miss Amanda Claridge# who answered ahswered amny of my questions with a great deal of patience. V Museums staff were always very helpful and I should like to thank Dr Nurettin Yardimcl, Director-General of Antiquities and Museums in Turkey, for his help with access to museums, and Dr Nu5in Asgarij Director of the Istanbul Archaeological Museum who discussed her work on Proconnesus with me and taught me to identify many different marbles. In Syria, the Director-General of Excavations of the Syrian Antiquities Service gave me permission to study material from his excavations at Palmyra as well as answering a number of queries. At Palmyra, Dr K. Assalad, Director of the Palmyra Museum, and Dr A. Taha, the Assistant Director, discussed their work with me and gave me access to the Old Museum Store to study the marble from the Baths of Diocletian. I should also like to thank Dr Marc Waelkens and Professor J. -C. Balty for their useful comments and advice on my work when I-was in Brussels in 1981 and in subsequent I correspopqence. On technical aspects of travel in the Eastern Mediterranean I should like to thank Mr P. J. Parr of the Institute of Archaeology in London, and Mr J. Tubb of the British Museum. I acknowledge with riTuch'gr'atitude the help of Dr Susan Walker of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum, on marble identifications and general aspects of marble in the Eastern Mediterranean and materials in Greece; also that of Dr T. F. C. Blagg, University of Kent, on the question of the red granite base in London. Dr G. M. R. Davies, Assistant Curator of the Colchester and Essex Museum was most helpful on the vi Mediterranean marbles found during. excavation at Colchester,, and the staff of the Museum of London kindly provided me - details-of marble found in Roman London. In Newcastle I should like to thank staff and members of the Department of Archaeology for their help and guidance on various matters. I should in particular like to thank Mr Dave Boyson and Mr Neil Christie who read part of the text and gave crtical comments, and Miss Jean Greenhalgh who travelled with me to Turkey in 1981 and taught me the basics of Turkish. I am very grateful to Mr Bill Hubbard who drew figures 1,18,19,20 and 25. I cannot thank some people enough for all the help they have Professor given me. R'. -M Harrison, my supervisor, has given me much guidance and help over the four years, being always open to discussion. He also took me to Turkey in August, 1982 as a member of his survey team in Lycia. This trip enabled me to visit parts of Turkey which would otherwise have been quite inaccessible, and allowed me to study the monuments of Trier and Agsta en route. I much appreciate the advice and encouragement he has given me and the time and comments he gave on the various drafts of this thesis. Mr Jon Coulston travelled with me in the Middle East and in Italyj and his 'protection' made the trips much less harrassing and as a result much more successful! I sbould like to thank him for the hours of discussion he has afforded me, and the advice and criticism he gave on the text from its first stages to the final draft. vii Finally, I should like to thank, with much love, my family, especially my sister, Miss Miriam Dodge, who typed the text with such care and diligence from an at times difficult to read script.