MARBLE, MEMORY, AND MEANING IN THE FOUR POMPEIAN STYLES OF WALL PAINTING by Lynley J. McAlpine A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Classical Art and Archaeology) in the University of Michigan 2014 Doctoral Committee: Professor Elaine K. Gazda, Chair Professor Lisa Nevett Professor David Potter Professor Nicola Terrenato Emeritus Professor Norman Yoffee The difference between false memories and true ones is the same as for jewels: it is always the false ones that look the most real, the most brilliant. Salvador Dalí, The Secret Life of Salvador Dalí © Lynley McAlpine All Rights Reserved 2013 Acknowledgements This project would have been impossible without the guidance of my advisor and dissertation chair, Elaine Gazda, who has provided unflagging support for all aspects of my work. I am grateful to have been able to work under the supervision of someone who I consider a model for the kind of scholar I hope to become: one who has a keen critical eye and who values collaboration and innovation. I have also benefited greatly from the sensible advice of Lisa Nevett, who has always helped me to recognize the possibilities and limitations of my approaches and evidence. David Potter’s perspective has been indispensable in determining how literary and historical sources could be employed responsibly in a study that focuses mainly on material culture. Nicola Terrenato has encouraged me to develop a critical and rigorous approach, and his scholarship has been an important model for my own. Finally, Norman Yoffee has been a continual source of advice and guidance, while opening my eyes to the ways my research can reach across disciplinary boundaries. I also would not have been able to write my dissertation without the financial support of the Memoria Romana Fellowship and the scholarly guidance of Karl Galinsky, whose direction and encouragement helped me to integrate memory studies into my research in a balanced and productive fashion. I have also benefited from the generous financial support of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and from the Interdepartmental Program in Classical Art and Archaeology and Rackham Graduate School at the University of Michigan. Thank you in particular to my parents for their unquestioning and constant support as I work toward my goals. Thanks to my family and friends for their patience and understanding when I have been absorbed in my work. Special thanks to Chris Laine for his tireless help and encouragement during the final stages of this project. ii Table of Contents Acknowledgements ii List of Figures vi List of Appendices x Abstract xi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 I. Previous Scholarship on Roman Wall Painting and Decorative Stone 3 II. Research Questions and Approach 10 III. Regional and Chronological Scope 16 i. Chronological Problems in Roman Domestic Architecture and Decoration 17 IV. Chapter Outline 25 CHAPTER TWO: ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND LITERARY SOURCES FOR THE USE OF DECORATIVE STONE IN ROMAN RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE 30 I. Literary Evidence for Marble Use in Domestic Contexts (ca. 150 B.C.E.-96 C.E.) 33 i. Imperial Memories of Republican Marble in Roman Literature 35 ii. Material, Memory and Text 38 iii. Cato the Elder (234-149 BCE) (and Festus, late 2nd century C.E.) 40 iv. Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.) 42 v. Varro (116-27 B.C.E.) 44 vi. Vitruvius (ca. 70-15 B.C.E.) 46 vii. Strabo (ca. 64 B.C.E. - 24 C.E.) 47 viii. Augustan Poets: Horace, Propertius, Ovid, Tibullus (31 B.C.E. - 27 C.E.) 47 ix. Seneca the Elder (ca. 54 B.C.E. - 39 C.E.) 50 x. Seneca the Younger (ca. 4-65 C.E.) 51 iii xi. Lucan (39-65 C.E.) 55 xii. Pliny the Elder (23-79 C.E.) 57 xiii. Martial (ca. 40-104 C.E.) 63 xiv. Statius (ca. 45-96 C.E.) 63 xv. Tacitus (56-117 C.E.) 66 xvi. Suetonius (ca. 70-130 C.E.) 67 II. Archaeological Evidence for the Use of Marble in Domestic Contexts (ca. 150 B.C.E. - 79 C.E.) 70 i. Colored Stone in the Hellenistic World 71 ii. Colored Stone in the Roman Republic 73 iii. Colored Stone in the Augustan Period 76 iv. Colored Stone in the Julio-Claudian and Flavian Periods 77 v. The Pattern of Developments in Private Marble Use in the Archaeological Record 81 vi. Conclusions 82 CHAPTER THREE: DECORATIVE STONE IN THE FIRST POMPEIAN STYLE 84 I. The Significance of Stone in the First Style 86 II. The Use of Colored Stone in the Architecture and Decoration of Pompeii in the First Style Period 95 III. Fictive Stone in the First Style 99 CHAPTER FOUR: MARBLE AND MORALITY IN REPUBLICAN VILLAS 106 I. Fictive Stone in the Second Style 109 II. Transgressive Fantasies at Oplontis (Villa A, Room 23) 124 i. Case Study: Room 23 in Villa A at Oplontis 124 ii. Transgressive Architectural Fantasies 130 III. The Role of Second Style Painting in Republican Villa Culture 134 i. Villa Paintings in Townhouses 136 IV. Conclusions 143 iv CHAPTER FIVE: LOCAL HISTORY AND THE TRANSITION FROM THE FIRST TO THE SECOND STYLE IN POMPEII 146 I. Previous Explanations for the Transition to the Second Style in 148 Pompeii 148 i. Stylistic Evolution 150 ii. Stylistic Intervention 152 II. Burial in Pompeii before and after 80 B.C.E. 154 i. Burial in Pompeii before ca. 80 B.C.E. 156 ii. Burial in Pompeii after ca. 80 B.C.E. 159 iii. The Fondo Azzolini Post-Colonization 164 iv. Conclusions 166 III. Community Dynamics in Pompeii and the Second Style 167 i. First Style Decoration After Roman Colonization 173 ii. Marble in the Second Style in Pompeii 173 CHAPTER SIX: IMPERIAL MARBLE IN POMPEIAN WALL PAINTING 184 I. Disappearing Marble: The Third Pompeian Style and Augustan Aesthetics 185 II. Marble Veneer and Imperial Prosperity in the Fourth Style 189 i. Marble in Fourth Style Wall Painting 189 ii. The role of "Zebra Stripe" decorations in Fourth Style wall painting 195 iii. Understanding the Reemergence of Marble in the Fourth Style 196 CHAPTER SEVEN: MEMORY AND MEANING 204 I. Maintaining and Viewing Antique Wall Paintings until 79 C.E. 204 i. Remembering to Maintain Paintings, or Maintaining Paintings to Remember 208 i. Heirloom-quality Paintings 212 ii. Possibilities for the Reception of First and Second Style Paintings in the First Century C.E. 217 CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSIONS 221 Appendices 280 Bibliography 310 v List of Figures Figure 1. Map of Pompeii……………………………………………………….228 Figure 2. Alabaster (Kelsey Museum of Archaeology accession nos. 0000.00.2112, 0000.00.2396, 0000.00.6267, 0000.00.6766)…………………………229 Figure 3. Carystian marble (Kelsey Museum of Archaeology accession no. 0000.00.6737)…………………………………………………………229 Figure 4. Chian marble (Kelsey Museum of Archaeology accession nos. 0000.00.2176, 0000.00.2053, 0000.00.2362, 0000.00.2050)…………230 Figure 5. Lucullan marble (Kelsey Museum of Archaeology accession nos. 0000.00.2079, 0000.00.2385, 0000.00.2384, 0000.00.2094)…………230 Figure 6. Luna grey marble (Kelsey Museum of Archaeology accession no. 0000.00.2251)…………………………………………………………231 Figure 7. Numidian marble (Kelsey Museum of Archaeology accession nos. 0000.00.2192, 0000.00.2188, 0000.00.2353, 0000.00.2179)…………231 Figure 8. Taenarian marble (Kelsey Museum of Archaeology accession nos. 0000.00.2076, 0000.00.6752)………………………………………....232 Figure 9. Phrygian marble (Kelsey Museum of Archaeology accession nos. 0000.00.2406, 0000.00.2060)…………………………………………232 Figure 10. Porphyry (Kelsey Museum of Archaeology accession no. 0000.00.2208) ………………………………………………………………………...232 Figure 11. Diagram of First Style decoration from Casa di Sallustio…………….233 Figure 12. Basilica, Pompeii. Masonry Style decoration of north interior wall, showing lacunae where pieces were removed………………………...234 Figure 13. Plan of Casa del Fauno, Pompeii…………………………………...…235 Figure 14. Casa del Fauno, Pompeii. Opus sectile pavement of the fauces………236 Figure 15. Casa del Fauno, Pompeii. Opus sectile pavement of the tablinum……236 Figure 16. Casa del Fauno, Pompeii. Opus sectile pavement of the impluvium….237 Figure 17. Casa del Fauno, Pompeii. Stone chip/crustae pavement of ala……..…237 Figure 18. Casa del Fauno, Pompeii. First Style decoration of fauces (east wall)..238 Figure 19. Casa dei Quattro Stili, Pompeii. First Style decoration showing breccia design……………………………………………………………….…238 Figure 20. Casa del Cenacolo, Pompeii. First Style decoration showing breccia design……………………………………………………………….....239 Figure 21. Casa del Centauro, Pompeii. First Style decoration showing diagonally divided block………………………………………………………..…239 vi Figure 22. Casa del Centauro, Pompeii. First Style decoration showing breccia design……………………………………………………………….....240 Figure 23. Casa del Centauro, Pompeii. First Style decoration showing breccia design………………………………………………………………….240 Figure 24. Casa dei Quattro Stili, Pompeii. First Style decoration showing alabaster design and mappa…………………………………………………...…241 Figure 25. Casa del Cenacolo, Pompeii. First Style decoration showing alabaster design……………………………………………………………….....241 Figure 26. Casa del Menandro, Pompeii. First Style decoration showing alabaster design……………………………………………………………….…242 Figure 27. Casa di Epidio Sabino, Pompeii. First Style decoration showing human figures………………………………………………………………....242 Figure 28. Villa A at Oplontis. Mosaic and crustae pavement of Room 15……...243 Figure 29. Villa dei Misteri, Pompeii. Crustae pavement of P2……………….…243 Figure 30. Villa dei Misteri, Pompeii. Crustae/mosaic pavement of atrium……..244 Figure 31. Villa dei Misteri, Pompeii. Opus sectile pavement of Room 5……….244 Figure 32. Villa A at Oplontis. Pavement of Room 14: mosaic with colored tesserae and central emblema………………………………………………..…245 Figure 33. Villa A at Oplontis. Second Style painting in Room 11……………....246 Figure 34. Villa dei Misteri, Pompeii. Second Style painting in Room 5. Detail of alabaster panels………………………………………………………..246 Figure 35. Villa dei Misteri, Pompeii. Second Style painting in Room 6. Detail of turquoise (?) and alabaster panels……………………………………..247 Figure 36.